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STxiNDARD ALPHABET 



|{EDUCING UNWRITTEN LANGUAGES AND FOREIGN 
GRAPHIC SYSTEMS 



UNIFORM ORTHOGRAPHY IN EUROPEAN LETTERS. 



By Dr. R. L EPS I US, 

PKOKKSSOR AT rUF. UNIVERSITY, AND MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY, BRRLIS 



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nECOMMKSbi:i) FOR \I)OI'TI>)N BY 

THE CHUBCH HI8SI0NAB7 SOCIETY. 



LONDON: 

SKELEYS, FLEET STREET & 1L\N()VEK STJIEET. 

1855. 









^ ic^sr 



ADVEETISEMENT. 



The need of a fixed system of orthography induced several of 
the missionary societies of London, a few years ago, to agree 
upon "Rules of reducing unwritten languages to alphabetical 
writing in Roman characters." These Rules, though imperfect, 
have been already applied with success to several African lan- 
guages. The societies were assisted in this work by the late 
Professor^Lee of Cambridge, by Mr. Norris of London, and by 
Professor Lepsius of Berlin; but feeling it to be necessary for 
the establishment of any standard system that an alphabet should 
be presented in a more complete form, and that the scientific 
principles should be explained upon which it was constructed. 
Professor Lepsius, at their request, kindly undertook this 
work, and has furnished the following admirable treatise, which 
will prove, it is hoped, an invaluable help to missionaries. The 
clear and scientific exhibition of vocal sounds which it contains 
will relieve Missionaries from many of their first difficulties in 
studying a foreign language, and will spare future translators 
much painful uncertainty respecting the powers of the letters 
which they employ. It has therefore been adopted by the 
Church Missionary Society as A Standard Alphabet. 

It is not expected that those who have already adopted a 
different system of orthography will at once conform to all the 

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IV ADVERTISEMENT. 

recommendations of Professor Lepsius, and in some minor 
points the genius of a language may possibly require a departure 
from the general standard. But such exceptions need not annul 
the standard character of this alphabet as one to which all 
parties may refer. Attention is particularly directed to the 
observations of Professor Lepsius upon this point at page 23. 

Founts of letters and matrixes are provided for printing ac- 
cording to this alphabet, and though its adoption may thus 
involve in the first instance some trouble and expense, these 
will be counterbalanced by the great and permanent advantage 
of a fixed orthography. 

The object of this treatise concerns not only missionaries, but 
also the interests of the natives whose langu.^ge is to be reduced 
to writing. It is most desirable that a nation should be furnished 
with an alphabet combining simplicity and precision to the 
utmost degree in which they are attainable. The art of reading 
will be thus greatly facilitated, and the natives will themselves 
teach one another to read and write without the perpetual aid 
of European teachers. In illustration of this remark, we may 
refer to the following instances: — In West Africa the Vei 
tribe invented a syllabic alphabet, in which every sign had its 
fixed sound, and the people taught one another to write without 
the aid of European teachers or the knowledge of European 
alphabets. Similar instances of natives teaching one another to 
read and write by a syllabic alphabet have occurred among the 
Indians in America. In New Zealand a very simple alphabet 
was carefully prepared by Professor Lee, and many tribes 
learned to read and write by the help of instructed natives 
before they were visited by Europeans. 



ADVERTISEMENT. V 

In respect of Africa it is especially important to take every 
step which may facilitate the mutual instruction, and supersede 
the labours of European teachers. In this way only can we 
hope for the evangelisation of that vast continent. 

It is a matter of much satisfaction, that in this, as in other 
instances, science lends its aid to the Christian zeal of mis- 
sionaries for communicating to mankind the highest benefits; 
and the work is commended under this aspect to the blessing 
of Almighty God for the furtherance of the Kingdom of Christ 
among the nations of the earth. 

H. VENN, B.D. Hon. Sec. 
J. CHAPMAN, M.A. Sec, 

Late Missionary in South India, and Prin- 
cipal of the Syrian College, Travancore. 

H. STRAITH, Hon. Lay Sec. 
C. GRAHAM, Lay Sec, 

Late Persian Interpreter to the Com- 
mander-in-Chief in India. 



CJuirch 

Missionary 

Society. 



Having been concerned in the preparation of the Rules, &c., 

referred to above, which have been successfully employed in 

our West African languages — where the want of a uniform 

system was especially felt, — we express our cordial approval 

of this treatise, in which Professor Lepsius clearly explains 

the scientific principles upon which a standard alphabet must 

be constructed, and renders it, in its complete form, capable 

of the most extensive application. 

JOHN BEECHAM, D.D. Sec | Wcsleyan 
ELIJAH HOOLE, Sec, \ Missionary 

Formerly Missionary in South India. | r>0Clf'fy. 



VI ADVERTISEMENT. 

(Extract from a letter to the author.) 

Societe des Missions Evangeliques. 

Paris le 7 juin 1855. 

„J'ai le plaisir de vous annoncer que dans sa seance men- 
suelle d'hier, le Comite de la Societe des Missions a 
decide d'envoyer a nos Missionaires au Sud de I'Afrique le 
^''Standard Alphabet'^'' et de recommander a leur plus seriense 
attention le systeme qui est propose pour arriver a une ma- 
niere uniforme d'ecrire les langues etrangeres qui n'ont point 
encore de litterature. 

En outre , il desire vivement qu'apres avoir etudie ce systeme 
les Missionaires de notre Societe puissent en faire I'application 
a la langue Sechuana. 

II serait utile pour cela, que notre Comite put avoir une 
vingtaine d'exemplaires de la traduction anglaise du Standard 
Alphabet^ pour les envoyer au Sud de I'Afrique". 

Au nom du Comite: 
GRANDPIERRE, 

Directeur. 



London Missionary Society. 

London, June 28ti' 1855. 

The importance of the object proposed by Dr. Lepsius will 
be deeply felt by every individual conversant in any degree 
with the difficulties to be encountered in the formation of a 
language previously unwritten, and vi^ith the want of har- 
mony which has hitherto been found in such attempts. I can- 



ADVERTISEMENT. VII 

not therefore but rejoice in the result of Dr. L"s close and 
profound attention to this subject, as exhibited in his pamphlet, 
and I most earnestly hope that it may greatly tend hereafter 
to secure substantial agreement, and if possible, uniformity 
in the practice of Christian Missionaries who are labouring to 
give the Word of God to tribes and nations among whom the 
symbols of thought have been previously unknown. 

ARTHUR TIDMAN, 

Foreign Secretary L. M. S. 



Moravian Missions. 

London, June 1855. 

I beg to give my cordial assent to the general principles 
which Professor Lepsius has so ably sketched in his Treatise. 
That the adoption of his system , however modified in some 
of its details, will be of the greatest service to Missionaries 
in every part of the world and especially to English Missio- 
naries, can hardly admit of a doubt. Had such a system been 
originally applied to the languages of the Greenlanders and 
Esquimaux and to those of the Indian tribes of North and South 
America, much uncertainty and difficulty would have been 
avoided. P. LA TROBE, 

Secretary in England to tlie 
Moravian Missions. 



Barmen, den :J0. Juli 1855. 

Die Deputation der Rheinischcn Missionsgcsell- 
schaft erklart hiermit ihre Zustimmung zu den von Herrn 
Prof. Lepsius in Berlin in seiner Schrift „das allgemcinc lin- 



VIII ADVEKTISEMENT. 

guistische Alphabet" niedergelegten Grundsatzen der Ortho- 
graphie und wird demgemafs ihre Missionare fur deren lin- 
guistische Arbeiten instruiren. Namens der Deputation: 

Insp. WALLMANN. 

[Barmen, 30"^ July 1855. The Committee of the Mis- 
sionary Society of the Rhine declares hereby its assent 
to the principles of Orthography laid down by Professor Lep- 
sius in his treatise on the Standard Alphabet, and will give 
directions accordingly to its Missionaries for their linguistic 
labours. For the Committee: Inspector Wallmann. ] 



Calw, Wurtemberg den 29. Oct. 1855. 

Der Unterzeichnete mufs, auch abgesehen von dem umsich- 

tigen Fleifs, womit dieses Standard Alphabet entworfen ist, 

schon um des harmonischen Zusammenwirkens willen, dringend 

wiinschen, dafs wenigstens auf diesem Theile des Missionsge- 

bietes Uniformitat zu Stande komme, und schliefst sich darum 

demselben mit Freuden an. 

Dr. CHR. G. BARTH, 

Vorstand des Calvver Verlags- Vereins. 

[Calw, "Wurtemberg, 29*^ October 1855. The Undersigned, 
besides acknowledging the care and completeness of the views, 
upon which this Standard Alphabet is founded, cannot but 
earnestly desire for the sake of harmonious cooperation, that 
Uniformity may be attained at least in this part of the Mis- 
sionary field, and therefore begs to give it his cordial assent. 
Dr. Chr. G. Barth, Director of the Calw. Publishing 
Union.] 



ADVERTISEMENT. IX 

Evaiigelisclie Missions - Gesellschaft zu Basel. 
Aiiszug aus dem Protokoll vom 9. Nov. 1855. 

„Die Committee der evangelischen Missions -Gesellschaft hat 
„in Anerkennung der grofsen Wichtigkeit iibereinstimmen- 
„der Grundsatze bei Fesstellung des Alphabets bisher nicht 
jjgeschriebeoer Spracheu besonders aiif dem Africanischen 
y,Sprachgebiet beschlossen, das von Hrn. Prof. Dr. Lepsius in 
„Berhn aufgestellte System der Orthographic zu adoptiren und 
„den in ihrem Dienst stehenden Missionaren dasselbe zu all- 
„mahliger Einfiihrung zu empfehlen." 

Namens der Committee: 
JOSENHANS, 

Inspector. 

[Evangelical Missionary Society at Basle. Extract 
from protocol of 9. November 1855. „The Committee of the 
Evangelical Missionary Society, acknowledging the great im- 
portance of uniform principles in fixing the Alphabet of pre- 
viously unwritten languages, particularly among the African 
races , has resolved to adopt the system of orthography pro- 
posed by Prof. Dr. Lepsius of Berlin, and to lecommond it 
to the Missionaries employed by this Society for gradual in- 
troduction." For the Committee: Jos en bans, Inspector.] 



The endeavour to establish a uniform orthography for writing 
foreign languages in European characters has both a scientific 
and a practical aim. The scientific aim is to bring these lan- 
guages with their literature more completely within our reach, 
and to increase our knowledge of the nations to which they 
belong. The practical aim is to facilitate the propagation of 
the Christian faith and the introduction of Christian civilisation 
among heathen nations, especially such as have no written 
language, by furnishing them with a suitable alphabet. 

The latter object is most intimately connected with the effi- 
ciency of all Christian missions. It is in this quarter that at- 
tention has been lately directed afresh to a want long felt in 
science, often suggested, but never yet satisfied, namely, the 
want of a standard alphabet universally current and applicable 
to all languages. In the Mission field, without doubt, the 
first decisive steps will be taken for the actual introduction of 
such a graphic system. 

The Scientific Object of this Alphabet, 

One of the grandest aims of modern science , and one which 
it has only lately been in a position to attempt, is the attain- 
ment of an accurate knowledge of all the languages of the earth. 
The knowledge of languages is the surest guide to a more 
intimate acquaintance with nations themselves, and this not 
only because language is the medium of all intellectual inter- 
communication, but also because it is the most direct, the most 
copious and lasting expression of the whole national mind. 

Al 



From the relations of separate languages, or groups of lan- 
guages, to one another, we may discover the original and more 
or less intimate affinity of the nations themselves. We learn, 
for instance, by this means, that the Indians, Persians, Greeks, 
Romans, Slavonians, and Germans form a catenarian series whose 
parts are far more intimately connected with one another than 
with any link of the chain , which consists of the Babylonians, 
Hebrews , Phenicians , Arabs, Abyssinians ; and that the Egyp- 
tians, and the African tribes on their noth-western and south- 
eastern boundaries, are much more intimately allied to both 
these groups, than to the rest of the African nations of which 
those w^ho inhabit the continent to the south of the Equator form 
another such circle of nations, all closely related to each other. 
In like manner will the chaos of the nations in Asia, America, 
and Polynesia, be gradually resolved into order, by the aid 
of linguistic science, the last aim of which is the investigation 
and comparison of all the languages of mankind. 

In order to learn any language, we must be able to read 
and write its primary elements, the sounds. This we can only 
do in so far as we are able to express them in our own alpha- 
betical characters; and sounds which do not exist in our own 
language must be described by other methods. Every gram- 
mar of a foreign language must resolve these problems in its 
first pages. But since the orthographies of European nations 
vary considerably among themselves, grammarians of different 
nations represent the sounds of one and the same language by 
different letters. 

For example, the same sounds will be expressed 
by the Germans w, dsch, scli, cli, 

„ EngHsh 00, j, sh, 

„ French ou, dj, ch, 

„ Italians w, g, sc, 

„ Spaniards u, — , — ^, / or a\ 

,, Dutch oe, — , — , 



The most difficult task, however, arises when we attempt to 
represent the sounds which have no corresponding signs in our 
own alphabet, and when we must therefore introduce new 
characters or apply diacritical marks to our own letters. The 
French and German languages, distinguishing only 20 simple 
consonantal sounds, and the English 22, it is evident that these 
alphabets are not sufficiently extensive to represent the sounds 
of the Asiatic languages , among which the Arabic distinguishes 
and represents 28 consonants, the Turkish 33, the Sanscrit 34, 
the Hindostanee 35, or, including the aspirates, even 47. Still 
less is the European alphabet capable of furnishing a comprehen- 
sive system including all the essential differences of sound, which 
amount to more than 50 in number, in all these various languages. 

But since, generally speaking, each grammarian has only ji 

occupied himself with one language, or with a small circle of 
languages, he has been satisfied with explaining the symbols 
he has employed, and the reasons of their selection, without 
reference to fellow labourers, or to predecessors in the same 
field; especially if belonging to different European nations, and 
therefore starting from difierent bases. 

Hence the diversity of signs for one and the same sound in 
different languages, or even in the same language, is conti- 
nually increasing; and has at length become so great, that the 
translator of Oriental works, the Tourist, the Geographer and 
Chartographer, the Naturalist, the Ethnographer, the Historian, 
in short every one who has to do with the names and words 
of foreign languages, and above all others the Linguist, who 
studies and compares languages, find themselves entangled in 
an intolerable confusion of orthographic systems and signs, from 
which each individual finds it impossible to extricate himself. 

It is therefore only in a comprehensive survey of the whole 
question that a solution of the problem will be found. We 
must start with that which is common to all systems, following 
their general direction, excluding arbitrary and isolated expe- 

A 2 



I 



riinents, keeping in view all the theoretical and practical dif- 
ficulties of the case, and directing all our endeavours to the 
construction of a complete and definite system founded on the 
nature of phonetic organism. This is the scientific problem of 
a universal alphabet. 

It is scarcely necessary to state that we do not here advo- 
cate any change in the orthographies of European languages. 
Isolated attempts to alter established orthographies cannot pro- 
duce any practical results nor render any aid to science. 

The Practical Object of this Alphabet. 

The aboriginal tribes of Africa, America, Australia, and Poly- 
nesia, are almost entirely destitute of written language. This 
fact alone characterises them as barbarous and uncivilised. And 
if there be no nobler calling for the civilised and Christian 
world than to impart to all mankind the treasures of religious 
know^ledge and human culture so freely entrusted to their hands 
by Divine Providence, — and if the obligation of this calling, 
now more powerfully felt than ever, rests especially on those 
'associations of high-minded Christian men, which have taken 
their name as Missionary Societies from this highest of all mis- 
sions: — then it is their especial duty to furnish destitute na- 
tions, first of all, with that most important, most indispensable 
means of intellectual , moral, and religious culture, a written 
language. For universal experience has long taught that it is 
cot sufficient for the missionaries to learn the language of the 
natives in order to introduce Christianity permanently into any 
nountry. Only where the Word of God is read by the people 
themselves, and where a whole people are made susceptible 
of the spirit of Christianity by the distribution of the Bible 
and of Christian school-books, can a rapid, a deep and a 
lasting work be hoped for. Bible Societies must go hand in 
hand with Missionary Societies. 

Hence for many years the committees of the principal Mis- 



sioDary Societies have regarded it as an important object to 
reduce to writing the languages of all the nations to which 
their missionaries have penetrated, and to prepare in all these 
languages translations of the sacred Scriptures, as well as 
Christian tracts. This presupposes an accurate and scientific 
study of those languages, and the preparation of grammars and 
dictionaries, which, in order to be clearly understood, must be 
founded upon a comparison of the the foreign with the European 
languages, and upon the latest improvements of linguistic science. 

It was a sense of the necessity of such linguistic studies 
which induced the Church Missionary Society to send the Kev. 
S. W. Koelle, a missionary especially adapted to the work, to 
Sierra Leone, mainly to study the languages of the thousands 
of manumitted slaves which are brought together from all parts 
of Africa at that point. The results of this exceedingly im- 
portant linguistic mission are a comparative vocabulary, com- 
prising more than one hundred distinct African languages, and 
carefully prepared grammars of two most important languages 
— the "F^i" and the '^Bornu.'' These works are now being 
published by the same Missionary Society, in order to form 
the foundation for future translations of the Bible and other 
useful books into those languages. 

The various Bible Societies have made efforts on the largest 
scale to effect the same object. The British and Foreign Bible 
Society of London had published, down to the middle of the 
past year, 26 millions of Bibles, or parts of the same, in 177 
different translations. These translations embraced ir)0 different 
languages, of which 108 belonged to countries beyond the bounds 
of Europe, viz. 70 to Asia, 17 to Polynesia, 8 to America, and 
13 to Africa ^. 

* See the last Report of this Bible Society, and more on the same subject 
in the most valuable and interesting work of Samuel Bar/slcr: The liihic of 
every Landj a Ilislonj of the Sacred Scriptures in every lanyuayc and dialect 
into tchicli Irandalxona hace been made ; illustrated a ilk specimen portions in 



•I 



I 



6 

It was natural that the European system of writing should 
be used for all those languages which had no system of their 
own. But here the same question arose as in linguistic science. 
Which orthography ought to be used? Was it advisable to force 
upon those nations to which the Bible was to be presented as 
their iirst reading-book, the English orthography, which is com- 
plicated, irregular, and singular even in Europe? Was it suitable 
that those nations should be compelled to learn to read and write 
for all future time after this fashion? And according to what 
principles should those sounds be expressed which are neither 
found in the English alphabet nor in any other European system ? 

As , in these respects , there was no general law or authority, 
every missionary who had such a translation to prepare struck 
out a way for himself, and sought, according to his own fancy, 
or from a very confined view of the case, to solve the difficulty. 
If we examine the long catalogue of Bibles printed in Latin 
characters we shall find the most multifarious systems of letters 
employed , often in cognate languages , and even in one and the 
same language. Sometimes difficult and unintelligible groupings 
of consonants are employed as representations of simple sounds; 
at other times a multitude of new and unexplained diacritical 
signs are employed; and often a refuge has been sought in the 
complete rejection of all diacritical marks, and thus the correct 
expression of the language has been sacrificed. The great and 
increasing confusion resulting from this arbitrary mode of pro- 
ceeding must be apparent. 

When the publication of the New Testament and Psalms 
in the language of the African Tmana (Betchuana, Betjuana, 
Sechuana) was lately completed by the London Missionary 
Society, the Secretary of the Church Missionary Society ex- 
pressed to the Secretary of the Paris Society the joy which 

native characters , series of alphabets, coloured ethnographical maps , tables, 
indexes, etc. London Sam. Bagster and Sons. 1851. 4to. In this book 
247 different languages are noticed in connexion with Bible translations. 



be felt when he thought of the rich blessings which would 
thence accrue to that people , and to the labours of the French 
missionaries scattered among them. "But," replied his sym- 
pathising friend, "is it not sad, that these thousands of copies 
already pubhshed are entirely unavailable and sealed to our 
French missionaries who labour among the same people, and 
to all those who have received instruction from them, simply 
because they make use of another orthography?" 

To avoid such palpable evils in future is the purpose of the 
proposed standard alphabet. 

In Asia, the birthplace of alphabets, the chief nations already 
possess a written literature in their own native characters. This 
has afforded to European colonists and rulers, as well as to 
missionaries, the means of exercising an intellectual influence 
over those nations. The English Government in India therefore 
generally makes use of the alphabets most extensively employed 
in those regions, viz. the Persian and the Devanagari letters, 
in order to govern and instruct the nations subject to their 
authority. The Bible Societies have also published more than 
40 translations of the Sacred Scriptures in those foreign cha- 
racters. But, nevertheless, it has been often and forcibly urged, 
that many important advantages would arise from the substitution 
of a European for all the native alphabets. For besides the supe- 
riority which the uniform division of the syllable into vowel and 
consonant gives to the European alphabet over the unwieldy 
Syllabic Alphabets of Asia, and still more over the Chinese 
Word -Alphabet, with its many thousands of symbols, every 
new alphabet constitutes a natural and almost impassable barrier 
between foreign and European civilisation by materially in- 
creasing the difficulty of acquiring such languages, and of be- 
coming acquainted with their literature. 

Hence the introduction of the European characters for the 
Indian languages has been supported by the present Govern- 
ment, and Bible Societies have already published a number of 






8 

translations upon the same system. Commencements of the same 
kind have already been made in China by the Missionaries, 
and bid fair to succeed. 

In every one of these instances the question recurred: Which 
European orthography is to be adopted? Which alphabetical 
system best harmonises the different European orthographies, 
and allows most easily of the application of diacritical signs 
to represent sounds not contained in the languages of Europe? 
To this practical question , our proposal endeavours to furnish 
the answer. 

What has been done by Science for the Solution of this Problem, 
ivp to the present Timef 

The want of a uniform orthography was first seriously felt 
with regard to the Oriental languages in the British possessions 
in India, where the study of those languages became a practical 
necessity. At the same time no country could better suggest 
a comprehensive discussion of this question; for here the two 
most perfect, and, at the same time, most opposite phonic and 
graphic systems, the Sanscrit and the Arabic, have met, and 
have been actually blended together in the Hindustanee alphabet. 
This alphabet being essentially Arabic, and expressing the dif- 
ferent Sanscrit sounds by diacritical signs, we find here the pro- 
blem, which we propose to ourselves in respect of the European 
graphic system, already fully and historically solved in the Arabic. 

The first person who took a comprehensive view of these 
difficulties, and undertook their solution as a problem worthy 
of his special attention, was Sir William Jones, a man of great 
learnini2r and cultivated mind. He was President of the Asiatic 

o 

Society in Bengal , and opened the first volume of its Transac- 
tions, pubhshed in Calcutta in 1788, with an Essay "0?j the 
Orthographj of Asiatic Words in Roman Letters J^^ 

* Asial'ic Researches^ vol. i. 1788, p. 1 — 56 The Essay was republished 
ill the edition of his works, London, 1799. 



He points out the desideratum in simple words^, and lays 
down , as the first principle , that the orthograpky of any Imi- 
gicage should never use the same letter for different sounds, nor 
different letters for the same sound'^\ he complains also of the 
great complication and perplexity of the present English ortho- 
graphy in this respect. He declares himself opposed to the 
doubling of a vowel in order to represent its length: and in 
reference to the i;oi6'6Z-system he adopts the Italian or German 
notation. This was one of the most important steps towards 
reducing the European alphabets to a uniform orthography. 

In reference to the consonants, he complains principally of the 
mixing up of Roman and Italic letters in the same words. ^ 

He justly admits (p. 13.) that the Sanscrit and Arabic alpha- 
bets represent the sounds of their languages so perfectly, that 
no character can be taken away from, or added to them, without 
manifest injury: and he unhesitatingly takes his stand not only 

* The treatise begins: "Every man, who has occasion to compose tracts on 
Asiatic literature, or to translate from the Asiatic languages , must always find 
it convenient, and sometimes necessary, to express Arabian^ Indian, and •' 

Persian words, or sentences, in the characters generally used among Euro- 
peans ; and almost every writer in those circumstances has a method of notation 
peculiar to himself: but none has yet appeared in the form of a complete 
system , so that each original sound may be rendered invariably by one appro- 
priated symbol, conformably to the natural order of articulation, and with a 
due regard to the primitive power of the Roman alphabet, which modern 
Europe has in general adopted. A want of attention to this object has 
occasioned great confusion in history and geography," etc. 

^ P. 7.: "Mr. Halhed (in his Bengal Grammar), hv^w'mg justly remarked, that 
the two greatest defects in the orthography of any language are the application 
of the same letter to several different sounds, and of different letters to the 
same sound, truly pronounces them both so common in English, that he was 
exceedingly embarrassed in the choice of letters to express the sound of the 
Bengal vowels, and even to the last was by no means satisfied with his 
own selection. 

^ P. 8.: "If anything dissatisfies me in Mr. Halhed's clear and accurate system, 
it is the use of double letters for the long vowels (which might, however, be 
justified) and the frequent intermixture of Italic and Roman letters in the 
same word; which both in writing and printing must be very inconvenient." 



10 

against the vain endeavour to represent foreign sounds by Eng- 
lish letters, but also against the introduction of entirely new 
characters. 

He therefore recommends, as the 07ily suitable and efficient method, 
the use of certain diacritical sig^is , especially such as had already 
been adopted by several savans of France and England. 

These vievi^s are throughout so sound and so well founded 
on practical experience , that even at the present time they com- 
mand our full assent. If, nevertheless, the alphabet proposed 
by him was imperfect, this was owing partly to his defective 
knowledge of the general organism of sounds and of the distinct 
sounds to be represented, and partly to the imperfect appli- 
cation of his own principles.^ 

It is much to be regretted, that the distinguished scholar 
Gilchrist, who had published many valuable works on the Hin- 
doostanee language , and had thereby gained great influence in 
India, did not become acquainted with the essay of Sir William 
Jones till too late to make use of the system in his own works ^, 
as he afterwards wished he had done. It is principally owing 
to this circumstance, that the unsuitable Enghsh vowel-system 
according to which Mr. Gilchrist writes ee for I, oo for u, do 
for ic^ ou for aic, was almost universally adopted in India. 

It is only since 1834 that the correct principles of Sir William 
Jones have obtained in India the consideration due to their im- 
portance. This change was brought about by the critical inves- 

1 He took, for instance, the Arabic x'^t for an aspirate like the Indian A;, 
and the Arabic j^din for a compound sound instead of a simple one. He con- 
sidered the Arabic Linguals as so similar to the Indian Cerebrals that he 
employed the same characters for both, although they differ materially , and 
in the Hindustanee are placed by the side of one another. He also gives to 
the letter h different signiiications accordingly as it stands alone or in con- 
nection with other letters, as sh {— s) , th (=<?), ch (=/c), ch'h ( = ^). In 
the same manner he assigns different values to the letters c, s, and others. 

^ Grammar of the Hindoos I anee Language, by John Gilchrist. Calcutta, 179G, 
p. 1. His English and Uindooslanec Diclionary hud been published in 1787. 



11 

tigations and influential exertions of Sir Charles Trccelyan'^ ^ who 
was, for many years, connected with the administration of India. 
He contended successfully against the English vowel -system, 
supported by the works of Mr. Gilchrist, and secured the more 
general adoption of the German, Italian, or ancient Latin me- 
thod, as proposed by Sir W. Jones. The former system may 
now be regarded as anticjuated in India. - 

But though the exertions of Sir W. Jones and Sir C. Tre- 
velyan have introduced a more correct i-oit-^Z- system , it yet 
remains that the same principles be applied to the consonant- 
system^ in wich there has been no amendm.ent since the time 
of Sir W. Jones ^, although it has been equally needed. 

In the meantime an event occurred in France , which directed 
the attention of the learned to the necessity of establishing a 

^ The Application of the Roman Alphabet to all the Oriental Languages^ 
contained in a series of papers, Kritfen by Messrs. Trevelyan., J. Prinsep, 
and Tytler f the Rev. A. Duff, and Mr. H. T. Prinsep, and published in 
various Calcutta periodicals in the year 1834: from the Serampoor Press, 
1834. The following three papers: Defence of Sir Williain Jones' System, 
Calcutta, 27 Aug. 1834; Circular Letter addressed by the Originators of the 
General Application of the Roman Letters to the Languages of the East, 
Calcutta, Nov, 1834; The Romanizing System, Calcutta, 1836, have lately- 
been reprinted under the title: Papers originally published at Calcutta i/t 
1834 and 1836 , on the application of the Roman Letters to the Languages 
of Asia. London, Longman, 1854. 

^ "During the twenty years which have since elapsed, this application of 
the Roman letters has made silent but steady progress; and, besides its in- 
creasing use by the natives of India, it has been extensively adopted by 
Missionary Establishments , by teachers of Oriental languages in this country, 
and, almost without exception, by authors of works relating to the East, 
who desire to express Asiatic words in an exact and uniform manner." See 
Preface of the London edition of the above named essays of Sir Charles 
Trevelyan, 1854. 

3 Mr. John Pickering also adopted the rojceZ-system of Sir W. Jones in his 
Essay on a uniform Orthography for the Indian Langtiages of North America, 
but he retarded rather than advanced a correct system of Consonants. This 
Essay was first published by the Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, of which 
he was a member; and also separately in Cambridge, U. S. , 1820. 



12 

consistent system of transcribing foreign alphabets into Euro- 
pean letters. 

The scientific results of the famous Egyptian Expedition were 
directed to be published by a commission of the most distin- 
guished scholars, appointed for that purpose. The Geographical 
Atlas, consisting of 47 maps of the largest size, contained nearly 
5000 Arabic words. These were to be written in Latin letters, 
and upon an accurate and intelligible system. For this purpose 
special conferences were instituted in the year 1803, in which 
Messrs. Volney, Monge, Bertholet, Langles, Syhestre de Saci/, 
Caussin, Lacroix, Baudeuf, Marcel, and Michel Aheyd took part. 

The first of these, C. T. Volney (who on account of his poli- 
tical services at a later period was made a Count by Napoleon, 
and a Peer by Louis XVIII.) , had written in 1795 an Arabic 
grammar, under the title, BimiMjication des langues orientales, 
ou methode nouvelle et facile dapp7'endre les langues Arahe, Per- 
sane et Turque, avec des caracteres JEwopeetis, Paris , an III. 
He here speaks of the advantage which the use of European 
letters ajffords in learning the Arabic language; and proposes 
a method for representing the Arabic alphabet in the Latin 
characters. This transcription was founded on no definite prin- 
ciples, but yet was guided by the correct feeling, that every 
simple sound should be represented by a single sign or cha- 
racter, a rule, from which he only deviated in one case, by 
writing ai for e. This led him to seek some simple signs to 
represent the three simple sounds not found in the Latin alpha- 
bet, viz. German cJi, English th and sh. For the two first he 
chose the Greek letters j and ^ \ but for the third he in- 
vented the entirely new character (/>. All other foreign sounds 
he sought to represent by graphic modifications of the letters 
most nearly expressing those sounds, not indeed by the addi- 
tion of disconnected marks of distinction, but by a change of 
the characters themselves, as for instance, ^, ^, r?, -?• 

The Commission of 1803 started upon this principle, and 



13 

adopted the system for the geographical maps, yet with a change 
of nearly all the single characters. This change aimed at sim- 
plification, but only substituted one arbitrary system in the 
place of another, and even gave up some material advantages 
of the first plan. The characters j and 6- were set aside for 
t and t^ whereby these lettres-were erroneously placed among 
the explosive letters ; and the representation of the German sch 
by the simple character 9> , which, though inconvenient, was 
right in principle, was given up for the inaccurate compound 
ch: and instead of ^, c^, etc., f, ^, were written. But they 
did not stop here; they introduced for the Descripticm cle CE- 
gypte an orthography which dispensed entirely with all diacri- 
tical signs; which on this account was both materially incor- 
rect and decidedly antagonistic to the principle of using always 
a simple character for a simple sound. ^ Thus they wrote ou, 
ey, kh, gh, ch, for our tc, e, j, j, S.^ 

With this method Volney himself could not be satisfied. He 
therefore took up the same subject again at a later period, and 
published in 1818 his well-known treatise: U Alphabet Europeen 
applique aux Langues Asiatiques.^'' This title expresses more 
than the book contains. The first half of the volume is taken 
up with the investigation of those sounds which belong to the 
European languages , and shows that the writer possessed but 
little native talent for investigations of this nature.^ The second 

* Both transcriptions are placed by the side of the Arabic names in the 
Index Geographique , which forms vol. xviii. of Pancoucke's edition. 

2 Vide p. 46. 

^ He discovers a difference between French ee or a (donne, dojmez) and 
the simple e (arme, bonte), and finds the former again in the German eh 
{dehnen), the latter in the German besser, or in the English rerf, head: 
8. p. 49 — 52. He pronounces the nasal in the German Anher as in the French 
Ancre, p. 59; the German z he resolves into </s, p. 83; and the Arabic^ain 
he calls a grasseyement dur , in opposition to the grasseyemenl doux of the 
modern Greek j', p. 100. The German ch in ich he places as a sofl sound 
by the hard sound in hwch, p. 103, etc., etc. 



14 

half treats exclusively of the Arabic Alphabet into the sounds 
of which he likewise does not penetrate very deeply. For the 
linguals he gives up the hooks, and adds instead a short line 
under each letter, viz. t, d, s, z. The characters t or hh he 
changes again to ^ , and 't (^=&) to / or s, and the character 
for the corresponding soft sound to z. For sch he proposes 
a lengthened or old-fashioned s, viz. f, or an inverted j, f\ 
while for Ti, ^, g*, ( = /?, g, j) he retains the additions, although 
he changes their forms. The notations of the vowels also un- 
derw^ent changes. At the close, he makes an attempt to apply 
his system of notation to the Hebrew, and the first line of his 
Hebrew Lord's Prayer will give a good idea of the awkwardness 
of this third method of writing. It is the following (p. 209.): 
abinco f*" h^ {"mim i"" q"dcM {^m-k". 

No one of the three editions of Volney's system met with 
any approbation or adoption, because his proposal was ba- 
sed neither upon scientific nor upon practical principles, be- 
cause it embraced in its field of view only the Arabic alpha- 
bet, and because it admitted no direct application to other 
languages and especially not to those of India. 

His exertions, however, were not forgotten, as by his will 
he founded an annual prize to be conferred by the Institute 
of France. This legacy was designated: ''pour le meilleur ou- 
trage relatif a V etude philosophique des langues^^ and at the same 
time the wish was expressed ''cTencourager tout travail tendant 
a donner suite et execution a line metliode de transcrire les langues 
Asiatiques en lettres Europeennes." This endowment, which was 
acknowledged by an Ordonnance of 1820, has produced many 
good results for the advancement of linguistic science, but it 
has conduced so little to the solution of the problem in question, 
that the French Academy finally determined to omit this sub- 
ject in their Programme, and only to propose exercises on 
comparative grammar. ^ The system of Sir W. Jones, which had 

^ Compare liJemoires de rinslitut dc France, Acadeuiie des Inscr. et Belles 



15 

proceeded npon more correct principles and upon a broader basis, 
was, indeed, occasionally alluded to by Volney, but never followed. 

No language has a system of sounds more rich and regularly 
developed than the Sanscrit, or expresses them so perfectly by 
its alphabet. The old grammarians of India did not, indeed, 
invent the Devanagari characters, but they brought them to 
that state of perfection which they now possess. With an 
acumen worthy of all admiration, with physiological and lin- 
guistic views more accurate than those of any other people, 
these grammarians penetrated so deeply into the relations of 
sounds in their own language, that we at this day may gain 
insruction from them, for the better understanding of the sounds 
of our own languages. On this account no language and no 
alphabet are better suited to serve, not indeed as an absolute 
rule , but as a starting point for the construction of a universal 
linguistic alphabet, than that of ancient India. 

Hence it is that the late progress in the solution of the 
alphabet -problem has been associated in Europe, as formerly 
in India, with Sanscrit studies; especially since these studies 
were made the foundation of the new science of comparative 

Lettres, tome xiv., Paris, 1845, p. 7 seqq. In the year 1835 a book appeared 
by A. E. Schleiermacher: De V Influence de Vecrituve sur le language, Me- 
moire qui en 1828 a parlage le prix foncle par 31. le comle de Volney, suivi 
de Grammaires Barmane et Malaie, et d'un apergu de V alphabet hannonique 
pour les langues Asiatiques que Vlnslitut Roy. de France a couronne en 1827. 
The author gives in the preface p ix seqq. a transcription of the Devanagari, 
the Bengal, and four Slavonic alphabets, -with respect to an Alphabet har- 
monique, which he exhibits in the Apergu mentioned on the title. Bat, as 
in both places of the book the reasons of this transcription are not developed, 
and as the complete Memoir on the Alphabet harmonique has hitherto not 
been published, we must abstain from offering any opinion of it. The pecu- 
liar division, however, in 16 gutturales, 12 palatales, 15 sifflantes, 16 lin- 
guales, 9 labiales., 9 nasales, and 16 melees.^ and the 5 subdivisions of lettres 
simples, variees, fortes, mouillees, and aspirees , seem to indicate that the 
author starts from a physiological and linguistic basis different from that 
which we consider the correct one. At the same time, however, the prin- 
ciple of using simple signs for simple sounds is constantly observed. 



16 

Philology. Here Bopp took the lead. In the earlier editions 
of his Sanscrit Grammar he had still employed the German 
compounds tsch, tschh, dsch, dscJih, sch, 7ig, kh,&c.; but later, 
in \\\b> Comparative Grammar, published in 1833, he introduced 
simple letters for all these sounds, and distinguished the va- 
rious classes of sounds by certain uniform diacritical marks. 
This orthography was soon adopted in the very numerous school 
of German and other linguists, and may now be regarded as 
the historical basis upon which , on account of its intrinsic value 
as well as its extensive use in science, the future superstructure 
must me built. H, Brockhaus ^, Benary, Gorresio, Roth, Benfey, 
Bothlingk, Mailer, Stenzler, Lassen, and many others have adopted 
this principle , although , in particular instances , they have often 
differed among themselves as to the choice of the diacritical 
marks. But all these men had either the Sanscrit lan^uaffe 
alone in view, or at most those of the same family. 

On the other hand, the Semitic scholars were equally exclu- 
sive, and generally retained the use of sli^ hh^ gli^ th^ dh^ for 
our s, J^, yt j^' ^* ^^^ some among them acknowledge the 
principle of simple characters for simple sounds, of whom we 
mention especially Caspari and Fleischer. The latter, an emi- 
nent scholar in the Semitic languages, and formerly himself a 
follower of the old method of writing, adopted in his Persian 
Grammar, published in 1847, the signs g, c, h, 7t, ^, 5, J^, in- 
stead of the double letters; as he had at an earlier period ^ 
chosen the Greek character ^ for the English th. 

After progress had thus been made by both parties acting 
independently of each other, it became necessary to discover a 

^ We mention particulary his Essay "•Ueber den Druck Sanscritischer Werke 
mit lateinischen Buchslahen, Leipzig, 18il,'^ in which he presents important 
considerations on the scientific advantage of printing large Sanscrit works 
in Latin letters. 

2 In his Catalogue of the Arabic, Persian^ and Turkish Manuscripts, in 
the Catalogus librorutn manvscr. in bibl senator. Lipsiensi , by R. E. ISawnan. 
Grimmae. 1838. 4°. 



17 

general system which might comprehend the two most important, 
but at the same time most widely separated groups of the prin- 
cipal known languages. And it was evident that such a com- 
prehensive system required a broader basis than any which had 
heretofore been proposed. That basis was to be discovered in |l 

the common ground from which both had starded; namely, the 
physiology of the human voice, which is the common ground and 
standard, not only for the two above-mentioned groups of 
languages, but also for all the languages of the earth. 

The human voice has its natural bounds, beyond which no 
development of sounds is possible. Hence the apparent infini- 
tude of articulate sounds does not consist in a boundless extent, 
but rather in an endless divisibihty, within assignable limits. j 

They may all be classified upon a physiological basis, so that ^ 

every sound may find its proper position in the general system. . 

Since the laws of the physical organism are unchangeable, i 

it is only necessary to understand them correctly, and to observe J 

their application to the linguistic science. j 

In this department much has been efiected , and most impor- ^ 

tant steps have been taken towards a solution of the problem. 
We may here refer to the labours of Kempelen, Liscovius, Dzondi, 
Willis, but above all to the researches of Joh. Midler.'^ 

The results also of physiological investigations have in several 
instances been apphed to the science of language by R. vox 
Raumer, Rapp, Schleicher, Bindseil, Heyse^ and others. 

Hence it appears that all previous conditions of the problem 
have been fulfilled. It has become possible to construct an alpha- 
bet, based on physiological principles, answering all the requi- 
rements of linguistic science, and embracing all the sounds con- 
tained in the two great alphabetical systems of Asia. This 
possibility alone justified, and indeed demanded, a new effort 
to reach the goal. Nevertheless, this attempt might perhaps 

^ Handbuch der Pkysiologie des Menschen, Band 2. p. 180. sqq. 1840. 

Bl 



18 

have been still long deferred, or even given up entirely, on 
account of the great practical difficulties which oppose every 
attempt at union in the republic of letters , if another and more 
lively impulse had not been given to it, within the last few 
years, from another quarter. 

What has been clone hy the Missionary Societies for the 
Solution of the Question'^ 

We have stated above, that the want of a uniform alphabet 
for those nations which are to be gained over to Christianity 
and civilisation, and which have no written language , is more 
and more strongly felt every day in missionary labours. The 
difficulty of introducing a convenient alphabet into practice is 
here much less than in the scientific world, as the managing 
committees can recommend such an alphabet to the missionaries 
dispersed over the whole earth, which will be a sufficient mo- 
tive for its reception by the great majority. 

The first recommendation from such a quarter was issued in 
the year 1848 by the Secretary of the Church Missionary So- 
ciety, the Kev. Henry Venn, under the title, '^ Rules for redu- 
cing unwritten languages to alphabetical loriting in Romaii charac- 
ters, with reference especially to the languages spoken in Africar 
We quote the first two paragraphs, which represent the mis- 
sionary point of view in a clear and comprehensive manner: 
"The want of a standard system of orthography has been expe- 
rienced by all persons engaged in the study of unwritten lan- 
guages. Each translator having to choose his own system, it 
has not unfrequently happened that two or more persons en- 
gaged upon the same language have adopted different systems. 
This has prevented, in a great measure, the mutual assistance, 
Avhich the parties might have rendered each other; and has 
retarded the formation of primers and educational works, and 
the translation of the Holy Scriptures. 

"To obviate these difficulties, several of the Missionary So- 



19 



I 



cieties, whose missionaries are engaged in Vernacular Trans- 
lations of African languages, have proposed the adoption of 
a common system of orthography , to be regarded as a standard 
system, and to be employed, as far as possible, in all works 
printed under their sanction. If in any particular case devia- 
tions from the system be thought necessary by the Translators, 
it is proposed that such deviations should be referred home before 
their adoption in printed works." 

This proposal adopts and consistently maintains the true prin- 
ciple, that every simple sound is to be expressed by a simple 
sign, and rectifies the English vowel -system. 

In the year 1849, the attention of the Americmi Mission of 
Port Natal was drawn towards the difficulties of the orthography '\ 

adopted for the Zulu language, and they submitted the subject ! 

to the examination of a committee. J 

About the same time the want of new signs for newly dis- | 

covered African sounds, was felt in several other African Mis- \ 

sions ; and some such signs were introduced into various books, i 

as in those published by the Norwegian Society at Natal, by the 

English Church Mission among the Suaheli on the eastern coast, \ 

and by the American Board on the Gaboon river in the west, ^ 

also in AppleyarcVs Kaffir Grammar, printed for the Wesley an i 

Society^ at King William's Town. These circumstances led the ' 

Committee at Port Natal ^ in March, 1850, to address a general 
circular to the friends of Missions and African civilisation, pro- 
posing a plan for securing a uniform orthography for writing 
the South African dialects. In further pursuance of their plan, 
an essay was communicated in October, 1852, to the Confe- 
rence of the American Oriental Society ^ at New York, and prin- 
ted in vol. III. No n. 1853, p. 421. sqq. of the Publications of 
this Society, under the title, ^^An Essay on the Phonology and 
Orthography of the Zulu and kindred dialects in Southern Africa, 
by the Rev. Levis Grout, Miss, of the Amer. Board in Southern 
Africa. " 

B2 



20 

The general principles mid requirements of an alphabet, adapt- 
ed especially for African languages, are here developed with 
accuracy and acumen, and are applied in particular to the Zulu 
language, including the clicks peculiar to the most southern 
African languages. This alphabet, however, is not based on 
a sufficiently comprehensive system of phonology, and the single 
letters consequently are not arranged according to their natural 
affinities. The Sanscrit and other written languages were not 
taken into account, and the former use of compound consonants 
is supplied partly by altering the form of letters, partly by com- 
bining them with diacritical signs, as i^, t/', k^ r, f, or s, or 
i, or 6', for our n^ n^ ^, ^', L 

In the Autumn of 1852, the author of the present paper, being 
in London, had the opportunity of discussing this subject (which 
had occupied his mind for several years) with some of the most 
influential members of Missionary Committees: and he was in- 
vited by the Rev. H. Venn to furnish him with a development 
of his alphabet, which appeared suitable for general adoption 
and conformable on the whole to the ^'Rules.^'' Mr. Venn pro- 
posed to transmit such an explanation of the alphabet to the 
Missionaries. Prevented, at that time, from complying with 
this wish, he simply communicated a tableau of the alphabet, 
which was inserted by Mr. Venn in a second edition of the 
''Rules''' in 1853. 

Soon afterwards the author was again induced to direct his 
special attention to this subject, by a visit of the Rev. S. W. 
Koelle^ in consequence of which he determined to bring forward 
his own long prepared project, after discussing it minutely with 
this gentleman , whose valuable contributions to African philo- 
logy have been already mentioned. It was now judged proper 
to publish the proposed alphabet, which had hitherto only been 
communicated privately to several of the most distinguished 
linguistic scholars. 



21 

The author therefore resolved to exphiin the principles of his 
plan in an essay to be read in a general sitting of the Academy 
of Berlin^ and to propose at the same time that the Academy 
should examine the alphabet in question, and, if approved, have 
types cut and cast for printing it. This proposal was laid be- 
fore the historico- philological class, and a committee appointed, 
composed of Professors Bopp, Jacob Grimm, Pertz, Gerhard, 
Btischmann , with the assistance of Professor J. Midler from the 
physical class. This committee approved the plan, with the 
exception of one member who denied in general the usefulness 
of all such endeavours; and on the 23rd of January tlie Class 
ordered the cutting and casting of the proposed types, which have 
consequently been used in the present pages. 

About the same time, the interest on the subject having 
greatly increased , chiefly from the progress of Missions , a new 
step was taken in London for the furtherance of the object in 
view. Chevaher Bunsen, whose reputation as a statesman, a 
scholar, and a friend of every important Christian movement 
is universally acknowledged , called a meeting of distinguished 
men, more or less interested in the question, among Avhom we 
may name. Profs. Wilson^ Muller^ Oiven^ Dietrich, Sir C. Tre- 
velyan^ Sir John Herschel^ Hon. Mr. Stanley^ Messrs. Norris^ 
Pertz ^ from Berlin, Messrs. Bahhage^ Wheatstone^ and Cull; the 
Rev. Messrs. Venn^ Chapman^ and Koelle^ and Mr. Graham^ 
of the Church Missionary Society, — the Rev. Mr. Arthur^ 
of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, — the Rev. Mr. Trestrail 
and Mr. Underhill of the Baptist Missionary Society. The au- 
thor also had the honour of being invited to this meeting, and 
was happy to be present at the three last conferences. These 
were occupied principally with the physiological basis, which 
was generally acknowledged to be necessary ; and was adopted 
without much dissent by the assembly. 

With regard to the graphic system to be employed, three 
diffeient proposals were examined. 



22 

The fo'st was supported by Sir Charles Trevelyan (above, p. 11), 
who recommended the orthography which originated with Sir 
W. Jones , and which has been frequently apphed in India. Its 
merits and soundness, in comparison with that of Gilchrist, 
were fully acknowledged; but at the same time its want of a 
physiological basis, and of a complete development in detail, 
could not be overlooked. 

The second^ by Prof. M. Miiller^ proposed to mark the devia- 
tions from known European sounds by printing the known 
letters in Roman characters, the foreign in italics. The principal 
objections against this intermixture of Roman and italic letters, 
of which Sir W. Jones had already decidedly disapproved (see 
above, p. 9), were the following: — This plan would exclude 
the ordinary significance of italics , which could hardly be sup- 
plied by any other means; neither is it applicable at all to 
writing. On these grounds it would prove most inconvenient 
for all missionary purposes. It would not meet the cases in 
which a European letter undergoes more than one modification, 
and would thus be incapable of expressing even whole classes 
of sounds. Finally, this theory, neglecting the continuity of 
historical development, introduces a novelty, which it can hardly 
be expected will be universally adopted. 

The third proposal was that of the author, and its object 
was only to bring the orthography hitherto used in science 
into more exact conformity with the laws of physiology, and 
to adapt it to practical purposes. 

The object of the meetings was rather to prepare the ques- 
tion for further discussion and examination, than to adopt re- 
solutions which should be considered as binding. The physio- 
logical system of phonology upon which the proposed alphabet 
had been based, was acknowledged to be substantially sound. 
And the author considers himself justified in stating that with 
respect also to the graphic system the views of the majority did 
not widely differ from his proposal. 



23 

The most important result of this coufereiice, in the author's 
apprehension, was the determination announced at the hist 
meeting in reference to the practical object of this alphabet. 
Mr. Venn expressed his ''conviction that the interests of Mis- 
sions would allow of no longer delay in the adoption of a 
standard alphabet: that the Church Missionary and other So- 
cieties had already substantially adopted, for this purpose, that 
of Professor Lepsius: and that as nothing had been concluded 
upon by this conference which held out any prospect of super- 
seding or materially improving it, he and the parties with whom 
he acted must go forward in the course upon which they had 
entered ; and w^ithout pledging their Missionaries to the adoption 
of every mark or sign , in every case , they must put forward 
Professor Lepsius's system as the standard; and all departures 
from it must be carefully canvassed , and marked as deviations, 
in w^orks printed by the societies." 

The author was also requested to draw up the present sketch 
for the purpose of communication to missionaries. At the same 
time the Berlin Academy was requested to have two sets of 
their types struck off for the Church Missionary Society, that 
the forms of the characters might be identical; and orders were 
given for the execution in these types of two works on African 
languages, already prepared for the press. ^ 

It is hoped that this determination may be favourably re- 
garded by all other missionary societies. We do not expect 
that everybody should agree about all the details of this alpha- 
bet; but it is not unreasonable to hope that it will be consi- 
dered as Si standard ^ and as affording a common basis by which 
other alphabets may be brought into the greatest possible 
agreement. Different languages may require different modifica- 
tions. Few, if any languages will require all the diacritical 
signs which must appear in the complete alphabet; while some 

* The first of these works has been ah-eady published. Grammar of the 
Bornu or Kanuri Language, by Rev. S. W. Koelle, 1854. 



24 

languages may requii'^ marks of distinction peculiar to them- 
selves. It is therefore necessary that the system should be elastic 
enough to admit of such reduction and enlargement without al- 
teration in its essential principles. Cases may even arise in 
vi^hlch material deviations from the proposed alphabet may appear 
unavoidable , and be advocated , on sufficient grounds , by scho- 
lars engaged in such researches. In all such cases , it is hoped 
that the Committees of Societies will require the reasons of 
such deviations to be laid before them and discussed, before 
the deviations are introduced into books printed by their autho- 
rity. This principle is most important for the furtherance of 
the object in view, and was repeatedly insisted upon by Mr. 
Venn , as indeed it had been already laid down in the ^'•Rules'' 
(see above) by the Committee of his Society in the year 1848. 
After these preHminaries we pass on to develop 

The System proposed. 

A COMPREHENSIVE exposition of the physiological basis would 
here be out of place. We must limit ourselves to facilitating 
the understanding of the system. This will be best accom- 
plished by not separating the phonic from the graphic system, 
but by presenting the first immediately in its application to the 
latter. We do not enlarge, therefore, on the definition of voice 
and sound, of vowel and consonant, and other physiological 
explanations, and shall only refer to them as occasion oflfers. 

A. The System of Vowels. 

There are three primary vowels , as there are three primary 

colours. Like the latter, they can be best represented by the 

analogy of a triangle, at the top of which is to be placed «, at the 

Ijasis i and w (pronounced as in the German andltahan languages). 



25 

The other vowels are formed between these three, as all co- 
lours betw^een red, yellow, and blue. In the most ancient lan- 
guages only these three primary vowels were sufficiently distinct 
to be marked in writing even when short. The Hieroglyphical, 
Indian , oldest Hebrew, and Gothic systems of writing admitted 
either of no other vowels at all , or at least of no other sliort 
vowels; in Arabic writing, even now, none but these three are 
distinguished. 

Next after these were formed , the intermediate vowels e bet- 
ween a and i, o between a and u , and the sound of the Ger- 
man ii (French ic) between i and w, also that of the German o 
(French eit) between e and o. Thus arose the pyramid 

a 

e 

i u u 

The distance between a and i and that between a and u is 
greater than that between i and u. The intermediate vowels 
e and o were, therefore, divided each into two vowels, of which 
one was nearer to a, the other nearer to i or io\ and in the 
same manner two sounds out of o were formed. All these vowels 
exist in European languages, and compose the following pyramid ; 

a 
Fr. e Fr. eu o Ital. 

(in pej/r) 

Fr. e Germ, o au Fr. 

i Germ, u u 

In some European languages and dialects other shades are 
found; we have, however, the less occasion to mention them 
here, as hitherto they have not been observed in any of the 
languages out of Europe that come under our consideration.^ 

^ The English vowels especially deviate throughout a little from those ot 
other languages, there being a slight difference in the general position ol 
the moutli. 



I 



26 

We might have wished to maintain for the middle series of 
vowels the two dots over the u and o, on account of the ge- 
nerally known precedent in the German orthography, the French 
double letter eu not answering the simple nature of the sound. 
A practical objection, however, to this mode is found in the 
circumstance, that occasionally over every vowel the sign of 
long " and short", and also that of the accent of the word ' 
will be necessary, for which the whole space over the letter 
is required. AVe have preferred, therefore, to preserve the 
two dots, and to place them under the vowel, as o and u. 

The distinction of the two modes of pronouncing e and o 
cannot be marked by the French accents, partly because the 
upper space is wanted for other signs too generally in use to 
be dispensed with , and partly because the acute accent would 
not be distinguished from the accent of the word. We add, 
therefore , as others have done before us , a line below to mark 
the broad open vowel e and o, and a dot below, to mark the 
pointed and closed vowel .^,0, the shape of these marks of- 
fering an analogy to the pronunciation itself. 

From these combinations, the following system results, in- 
cluding the indifferent^ or intermediate sounds: 



a 

ego 
e 

§ Q Q 

i u u 



We must mention, however, one other vowel, which exists 
in almost all languages, and ought not to be neglected by lin- 
guists. This is the indistinct vowel-sound from which, according 
to the opinion of some scholars, the other vowels, as it were, 
issued and grew into individuality, and to which the unaccented 
vowels of our aged European languages often return , as in the 

^ See below, p. 50. 51. 



27 : «1 



English words nation, velvet; the German lieben, VcTstand; 
the French sabre, tenir. This vowel comes among the clear 
sounding vowels next to o, being itself a mixture of all the 
others^, but it is capable of various shades, and sometimes 
approaches nearer to «, or to i and u. From all of these, 
however, as also from o, it is distinguished by the absence of 
that clear resonance common to the others, which is lost by 
partially contracting the mouth or even closing it entirely: in 
the latter case it is heard through the nose. ^ This vowel is 
inherent in all soft fricative consonants , as well as in the first 
part of the nasal explosive sounds (see below); whence all these 
letters as i^^ n, m, appear sometimes as forming syllables.^ It 
assumes the strongest resonance, as may be easily explained 
on physiological grounds, in combination with r and /, which, 
as is well known, appear in Sanscrit as r and /, with all the 
qualities of the other vowels.^ We should feel inclined to re- 
present this sound by the Greek letter a, in order to distinguish 
it more fully from all the other vowels, and to fall in with 
the practice of Ludolf, Isenberg, Piccolomini, and others. 
However, there are strong objections to this: for it is not only 
very desirable to confine ourselves to the use of Latin characters, 
but the ancient and modern pronunciation of the Greek c is 

^ The () resembles in the pyramid of colours the brown colour, which 
equally arises from a mixture of the three prime colours, or of one of them 
with the opposite intermediate colour. 

red, 
orange^ broicn, violet, 
yellow, green ^ blue. 

'^ It may be compared to grey, which also does not belong to the series 
of individual colours. 

' In the Chinese language, for instance, z is used as a vowel in the roots 
sz, tsz. 

* A similar remark applies to the English vowel, into which all clear vo- 
wels resolve themselves before r combined with a second consonant as in 
steward, herd, bird, work, world, burn, and so on; yet the Indian vowel 
is still dift'erent from these. 






28 

also as different from the sound we wish to represent as that 
of the Latin e. Besides this, we represent the same sound in 
the vocahsed consonants by a little circle (as /, v*, w), and so 
it seems but natural to transfer this mark to the vowels. Ac- 
cordingly we take the letter ^, which, in most European ortho- 
graphies, is used for an indefinite voweP, and subscribe the 
little circle to it (e). Hereby we gain the advantage that we 
can easily provide signs for those cases where the indefinite 
vowel approaches more closely to any of the common vowels, 
by subscribing the circle to them (as a^ /, o, li). Such a case 
occurs, e. g., in the Kanuri or Bornu language, where Mr. 
Koelle^ finds it necessary to distinguish between q and a. 

Finally, the clear vowels are further capable of a peculiar 
alteration , that of nasalisation. This is produced not by closing 
nor even by narrowing the canal of the mouth , but by simul- 
taneously opening the canal of the nose. There is no conso- 
nantal element brought into play (although the nasalisation is 
mostly caused by the dropping of a nasal consonant), but it 
is an alteration entirely within the vowel. As such it has been 
rightly understood by the Indian grammarians, who express 
the nasalisation (anuswara) by a vowel-like sign, namely, by 
placing a dot over the letter. For the European alphabet, we 
choose the sign ~ placed over the voweP, as the dot would 
be inconvenient in the case of the «', and write — 



«, (?, t, 0, W, 0, u. 

The length of vowels is not expressed by the Greek sign \ 
but by the hue used in Latin prosody, which requires less 
space, and is more easily combined with the accent «, ct^ e^ 

^ e. g. , Burnouf, Roger, Endlicher^ Petermann, Edwards, also Bopp and 

Schbn, who write e. 

^ In his Grammar of the Bornu or Kanuri Language. London, 1854, 
^ The same mark has occasionally been employed by Burnovf in his Com- 

mcntaire sur h Ya(;na (p, cxxiii, p. xi, , tal)leau). 



29 

and so on. The shortness, if required to be specially ex- 
pressed, is likewise, as in prosody, marked by '', d^ c^ i^ etc. 

A complete and accurate theory of transcription would re- 
quire a distinction of diplttliongs ^ as such, since two vowels 
united by accent into one syllable are pronounced otherwise 
than when placed unconnectedly by the side of each other, 
and forming two syllables ; the German word Mai having a dif- 
ferent sound from that of the Italian mai. The first might be 
marked Mcd^ the second mdi Practice, however, seems in 
most languages not to require any distinction. 

The complete tableau of the vowels and their modifications 
is therefore the following: 



a , a e t u n u 

e a e f o ic o u r I m n n z 



(i a e i u u 

i u u 



B. The System of Consonants. 

On the Division of Consonants. 

The consonants may be divided on different principles. Two 
principles of division, however, are prevalent, and will therefore 
be here adopted: although the exact place of every sound in 
the physiological system can result only from a minute enquiry 
into all its qualities. 

The first and most important division is that determined by 
the ijlace in the mouth where the sounds are formed. The breath 
which forms the sounds issues from the larynx into the mouth, 
and is here modified in a manifold manner, until it passes the 
outward gate of the lips. Thus the breath on its way can be 
stopped in various places either by the lips or by the tongue. 
We arc accustomed in our languages , like the Greeks and Ro- 



30 

mans, to distinguish three such stoppings, and thus to divide 
the consonants into three classes, gutturals, dentals, and labials, 
according as they are formed in the throat, at the teeth, or 
with the lips. 

There is another essential difference in the pronunciation , in 
as far as either the mouth at the above-mentioned places is 
completely closed and reopened, or the passage of the breath 
is only narrowed without its stream being entirely interrupted 
by closing the organs. The consonants formed by the first 
process we call explosive or divisible (dividuae)^ because the 
moment of contact divides the sound into two parts, ^ the others 
fricative, from their sound being determined by friction , or con- 
tinuous (continuae) because this friction is not interrupted by any 
closing of the organs. The sounds r and I participate of both 
qualities, being continuous, and at the same time formed by a 
contact, which is vibrating in r, and partial in 1. 

"We are thus enabled to give the following synopsis of the 
most generally known simple consonantal sounds. 

^ It will, on examination, soon appear that we often pronounce only half 
of a consonant, as, for instance, in all cases in which a nasal consonant meets 
another explosive letter of the same local class. The full pronunciation of 
an explosive letter requires the closing and opening of the organ. In anda 
we close the mouth with n and open it with rf, the reverse in adna^ pro- 
nouncing thus only half the n and half the d, whilst in ana and ada we pro- 
nounce the whole of w and of <i; the same in ampa and ahka, and so on. 
It is a dicided mistake, to reckon m and n among the consonantes continuae; 
for in w and n it is only the vowel element inherent in the first half, which 
may be continued at pleasure, whilst in all the continuous consonants it is 
the consonantal element (the friction) which must be continued , as in /", v, s, a. 
When in a final m we do not reopen the mouth, we pronounce only half an 
m , not a whole one. The complete consonant is best perceived when placed 
between two vowels. It is evident that in ama closing and opening are as 
necessary to the completeness of m, as in aha to that of h. This has been 
correctly understood by the Indian grammarians. 



31 



The Simple Consonants in the European Alphabets. 



Guttii-\ 
rales / 



n t a -1 

es / 



D e n t a -1 
lei 



Labia-] 
les I 



explosivae 

or 

dividuae. 

fort. len. nasal. 


k 


Gcr.^ 


Gcr. ng 


t 


d 


n 


P 


h 


m 



fricativae or continuae. 

fortis. lenis. seniivoc. 

Ger ch h Danish <^ ^^^-j 

Fr. ch Fr. j 

shaiii S Fr- Z 

,Engl. tll^-m) Engl. tll^-lUQ) 

f Fr. v Engl.«(; 



'ancipites. 



gntt. r 



r I 



Upon ichat Principles are these Sounds to be rendered 
in a General Alphabet'^ 

Of these sounds only 1 1 , viz. Z:, //, ^, c/, n^ r, ?, p, Z>, m, /, 
have one and the same universally aknowledged value in the 
European alphabets, putting aside a few minor differences. The 
others require to be specially defined. Even among these the 
simple signs, g, s, z, v, and w are already so generally intro- 
duced into linguistic books in the value indicated above, that 
we may safely use them without further discussion. 

We meet with some difficulty, however, with respect to the 
sounds of the German ng, ch, and y, the French j and ch (or 
English 6'/^), the English sharp and soft th, the Danish g, and 
the guttural r. These nine sounds have been represented in 
linguistic books by various means. 

The inconvenience of the common way of writing them will 
be evident, when we refer to the principles upon which every 
alphabet, aiming at general application, must be grounded, and 
which are essentially as follows: — 

I. Every simple sound ought to he represented by a simple sign. 
This excludes the combinations ng , ch, th. 

II. Different sounds are not to he expressed hy one and the same 



32 

sign; contrary to which principle ch, j^ th have been used each 
with a double value. 

III. Tliose European characters ivMcli have a different value in 
the principal European alphabets, are not to he admitted into a 
general alphabet To these belong especially c and j. The for- 
mer is pronounced in German ts^ in French and Enghsh 5 or 
k, in Italian ts or h, and when combined with h, in German 
like the Greek ^, in English ts^ in French s, in Italian k; j in 
German and Italian like the English y in year, in English dz^ 
in French z^ in Spanish like the German ch, or Greek j(^. No 
less different are the sounds indicated by x. The characters 
c, cA, y, ^1 are therefore to be excluded entirely. 

lY. Explosive letters are not to be used to e.vpress fricative 
sounds, and vice versa. On the contrary, the simple characters 
(bases) must form a separate series in each of the two great 
divisions; if not, inextricable confusion will inevitably arise. 
Consequently c Q=k^ ts^ ts), being explosive, cannot serve as 
basis for the fricative German sound ch. For the same reason 
the explosive c is to be avoided in rendering the fricative French 
ch, as also the explosive t in the fricative English th. 

If, then, we look for signs which can be applied to the 
sounds above indicated, so as not to violate these most impor- 
tant principles, we shall find the choice of letters more cir- 
cumscribed than it would at first appear. 

German ng. 
In German and in English (as for instance, Germ, enge, Engl. 
singing) ng expresses the guttural n^, for which linguistic use 
has very generally adopted n, particularly in transcribing the 
Sanscrit. It is evident that n must remain the basis , and there 
is no reason for introducing any other diacritical sign. 

^ In most other languages, as in Sanscrit, it appears only before other gut- 
turals; Indian scholars, therefore, do not generally distinguish it from the 
dental n. 



33 

Guttural r. 
The guttural r differs from the usual dental r, in as much 
as the velum palati is put in vibration instead of the tip of the 
tongue. It is often thus pronounced in different dialects of the 
German, French, and other languages. The point over the 
letter marking already the guttural pronunciation of n, no 
other diacritical sign will be chosen for the same purpose in r. 
We write it, therefore, i\ 

German j. 
The German j is the semi -vowel which, in Enghsh (year, 
yes), and sometimes also in French (Mayence, Bayonne), is 
expressed by y. As , according to rule No. III. , we cannot 
retain the sign /, we write ?/, following here also the use ge- 
nerally adopted in linguistic books. 

German ch. 
The German cli in lachen is known to be \he fricative sound, 
which arises from the throat, not being closed at the guttural 
point (which would give A'), but only narrowed, so that the 
strong and continuous breath produces a friction, such as is 
heard at the teeth in 5, and at the lips in/. The English, 
French, and Italians, do not know the sound at all; in the 
Spanish language it is marked by j or cc. In the Semitic lan- 
guages (Hebrew n, Arabic ^) it is very frequent. Of Euro- 
pean alphabets only the Spanish and the Greek have a simple 
letter for the sound. The Latin language did not know the 
sound, and therefore did not express it. The signs hitherto 
used by linguistic scholars, ch^ kh^ qh^ k, ^, are in opposition 
to the inviolable principle that fricative sounds must not bo 
represented by explosive bases, such as c, /c, q (above No. IV.), 
or are altogether improper, like x. The nearest applicable fri- 
cative basis would be h. But it will appear from the sequel 
that this sign would be used for six different sounds, if we 
do not confine it strictly to its proper meaning. The difficulty, 

Cl 



34 

of finding an appropriate sign for this sound is therefore great, 
and has been long felt. We possess one, however, in a Euro- 
pean alphabet, namely, the Greek, which is almost as gene- 
rally known as the Latin. From this it has been adopted into 
the Russian alphabet; and the Spanish .x owes its pronuncia- 
tion, probably, rather to the Greek ^, than to the Latin a-. 
The want of a hew sign, which of course could not be sup- 
plied from an Oriental alphabet, had already caused Volney 
to propose the Greek j|^ in his alphabet of 1795, and, after the 
mistake!! experiment of substituting ^, to reproduce it in his 
last alphabet of 1818. The same sign is used by Joh. Muller'^^ 
Rapp^, Bunsen^y and others. 

We therefore consider it not only as an essential advantage, 
but even as the only means of solving all difficulties, to follow 
these precedents, and to receive the Greek jj;- as the represen- 
tative of this sound in the general alphabet. Of the soft sound, 
which corresponds with the strong, we shall have to speak below. 

English sh, French ch, German sch. 

For the rushing sound of the English sh we should not hesi- 
tate to propose a new basis, and to borrow it, if necessary, 
from the Greek alphabet, if any such existed. But neither 
the Greeks nor the Romans had this sound; and we must 
avoid recurring to the Oriental , or even the Russian alphabet, 
as few persons could be expected to follow us so far. Our 
only resource , therefore , is to content ourselves with the near- 
est basis Sy and to qualify this by a diacritical mark. This 
has been done, moreover, by all those that sought a simple 
sign for this simple sound, except by Volney, who first pro- 
posed a newly invented sign ^, and afterwards preferred f, 
viz. the inverted j. Some used t; or s. More generally s has 

1 Handbuch der Physiologie , vol. n. (1837), pp. 237, 238. 

^ Physiologie der Sprache, p. 65. 

^ Aegyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte, vol. i. 



35 

been adopted, from the precedent of Bopp, who has used it 
since 1833. Others have preserved the combination sh, which 
not only offends against the simplicity of the sound, but has 
produced also the incorrect impression, that the rushing sound 
imphed a stronger breath than the common s. We should 
adopt Bopp's s , on account of the authority of the precedent 
and its reception by his school, if it were not open to serious 
objections. The spiritus asper is, like h, a sign of aspirates, 
and from the analogy of the aspirates k\ f, p, one ought to 
read s as s-h, pronounced separately, or, from the analogy of 
11, J^, etc. (see below), to suppose an augmentation of the 
breathing of the s. None of these is the case. It would be, 
therefore, introducing a new meaning of the spiritus asper, 
used only in this single case. Nor can we adopt s, since the 
accent indicates the palatal series (see below), and the single 
precedent of s used by Schleiermacher has hitherto found 
no imitation. 

We propose to write S, using a sign which, by its semicir- 
cular shape, recalls the position of the mouth proper to its 
pronunciation; a consideration, by which we have been led 
occasionally in the choice of diacritical signs, when more con- 
clusive motives were wanting. It is an advantage, also, that 
the proposed mark over the 6- comes as near as possible to the 
widely extended method of Bopp. Finally, we may refer to the 
Serbian and the modern Bohemian alphabet, in which the slightly 
different s for our -s has been in constant and general use. 

French j. 

This letter is the soft and vocalised sound, which corresponds 
to the strong French ch (German seA), and stands exactly in 
the same relation to it as the French z to the strong s. Volney 
retained the French j, which we cannot use even as a basis 
(see above), any more than zh, which has been introduced by 
others. There can be no doubt, however, that the parallelism 

C2 



with our 6- for French ch requires a soft z for French j, which, 
following the same analogy, the Serbians write z. 

English strong th. 

The English th^ offers exactly the same difficulties as the 
German ch. It is a litter a fricativa or continua, and must not, 
therefore, have the explosive letter t, for its basis. The only 
Latin character of the fricative division, which might be ap- 
plied to it, is 5, and, for the soft sound, z. Both, however, 
have been already applied each to two uses, and would besides 
have the disadvantage of favouring the tendency, common to 
most European nations , to substitute the usual dental 5 for the 
peculiar lisping sound. In this case, also, it will soon (when 
frequent use shall have overcome the first- felt apprehension) 
be acknowledged as an advantage , if, instead of s with a dia- 
critical sign , we adopt the universally known Greek character 
^ as a new and original basis. Nor is it without precedent, 
having been used for this purpose by many, among whom 
we may again mention Volney (1795) and Fleisclier (1831). 

We do not undervalue the evident and serious difficulty, that 
by the reception of two Greek characters, the generally required 
confinement to the Koman alphabet suffers an exception; and 
we foresee that many who do not sufficiently appreciate the 
great importance of the organic laws of the alphabet, maybe 
shocked at first. A further consideration will, however, soon 
make it evident, that the peculiar poverty of the Latin lan- 
guage in fricative sounds and letters, and the general tendency 
of all languages to transform the explosive into fricative sounds ^, 
have rendered the disproportion between the two great divi- 
sions of sounds, with respect to their graphic representation, 

* The same lisping sound exists in the Arabic and many other, also in 
some African, languages. 

^ Instances of this tendency are generally known from the Romanic lan- 
guages. See also below, where the Palatals are considered. 



37 

already so great that an essential and lasting remedy is abso- 
lutely required. There are, indeed, eight bases for the above- 
stated nine explosive sounds, and only six for the twelve fri- 
cative sounds. An augmentation of the latter by introducing 
the two Greek signs j and ^, is consequently almost unavoi- 
dable; and their absolute necessity will soon be still more 
evident when we come to consider the Asiatic sounds in ad- 
dition to the European. 

The soft English th , and tlie Danish g. 

The sound of the soft English th (thine ^ thou) appears also 
in the Danish d and in the modern Greek (>; the soft guttural 
corresponding to the strong German ch presents itself in the 
Danish g and the modern Greek /. ^ It cannot be denied that 
it would be a real advantage if we had other bases for these 
soft sounds than j(^ and ^, as £; differs from 6-, z from 6-, v from 
/; and when in future time the natural antipathy against the 
Greek characters ^^ and ^ shall have given way to the con- 
viction of their necessity, perhaps it may be less difficult to 
go still farther and to mark the corresponding soft sounds equally 
by the Greek letters y and o.- For the present we hesitate 
to make this proposal, although we might adduce the important 
precedent of Fleischer (1831), partly because the modern Greek 
pronuntiation of y and o is less known than that of ^ and ^, 
partly because we wish to depart from the general basis of 
Latin letters only in cases of extreme necessity. An easy ana- 
logy will lead us therefore, retaining the same basis, to express 
the strong and soft breathing by the spiritus asper and lenis 

^ The modern Greek ;' passes, at least before f, i, v, into the corresponding 
fricative sound. 

2 There can be no doubt, that neither did ;j; and o originally signify the 
fricative sounds substituted in a later time , but the aspirates /c and t\ The 
epoch of the altered pronunciation of j, />, and (f , cannot be accurately de- 
fined, but has been probably contemporaneous with the alteration of y and d, 
whilst jJ seems to have approached v in still earlier times. 



38 



respectively, writing the strong ;]f, {^\ the soft;f , {f. The basis 
itself having been used in the Greek alphabet originally for 
the strong sound, and this sound being by far the more frequent, 
the spiritus asper may be omitted. ^ 

We are thus enabled to give the following tableau of the 
European sounds: 

Alphabet of the European Consonantal System. 



Gutturales 



Dentales 



Labiales 



explosivce or dividufe. 

fortis. Icnis. nasalis. 

k a n 



t d n 



P 



b m 



fricafivce or continues, j ancipites 

fovtis. lenis. seniivoc. 



idVi i(/) y 



Y -■ 



Enlargement of the Alphabet by the Addition of tJie Foreign Sounds 
of Oriental Languages. 

The Asiatic languages, especially the Indian and the Arabic, 
possess, besides the sounds hitherto considered, others, which 
hardly exist at all in European languages , or at least are only 
fully developed in Asiatic languages, and, therefore, can only 
find their proper position in a more comprehensive system. In- 
stead of the three European classes , we must distinguish seven, 
which we shall now consider separately. 



I. The Faucal Class. 
h 
We are accustomed to reckon h among the gutturals. It is 

* There is certainly an inconsistency in our using the sign ' , which other- 
wise indicates an interruption of breath , to marlv a soft spiration ; but this 
is unavoidable , if we will not substitute the Greek letters y and J. 



39 

easily observed, however, that we pronounce this suimd behind 
the guttural point , immediately at the larynx. When pronoun- 
ced so softly as to be vocalised , L e. so as to imply a vowel 
sound produced in the larynx (as withe, c, ^\ z) the friction 
ceases to be audible, and only the vowel element is heard. 
This vocalised consonantal breathing, is, therefore, not pecu- 
liarly marked in any language, li belongs, therefore, to the 
unvocalised strong fricatives. 

Arabic ^ , Hebrevjin, Sanscrit "^, Greek spiritiis loiis. 
By closing the throat and then opening it to pronounce a vowel, 
we produce the slight explosive sound which in the Eastern 
languages is marked separately, but not in the European, except 
in the Greek. We perceive it distinctly between two vowels 
which follow^ing each other are pronounced separately, as in 
the Italian sara 'a casa, the English go 'over, the German See- 
'acller,; or even after consonants when trying to distinguish, 
in German, mein 'Eid (my oath) from Meineid (perjury), or 
Fisch-'art (fish species) from Fischart (a name), &c. We indi- 
cate this sound, when necessary, by the mark ', like the Greeks. 

Arabic p, kiin. 
The soft sound just described , can be pronounced hard by 
a stronger explosion at the same point of the throat. Thus arises 
the sound which the Arabs write p. We find it expressed by 
scholars generally by placing a diacritical sign over the following 
vowels, a, a, a, a, a; sometimes below, a. This method would 
suppose, from the analogy of all systems of writing, that the 
p were only an indication of a change in the vowel. It is, 
however, a full consonant, preceding the vo\\el. We indicate 
it, therefore, with regard to its affinity to the soft sound, by 
doubling the spiritus lenis, ;. 

Arabic ^, Jla. 
The fricative sound corresponding to ; is not the connnon //, 



40 

but a stronger aspiration , which requires a greater contraction 
of the faucal point, and is distinguished by the Arabs from 
the simple h. I has, therefore, been often indicated by hh. 
We write li corresponding with ^, ^\ and have a precedent 
in the writings of Fleischer (1831), Ewald (1S31), Vullers (1841). 

The absence of any nasal sound in the faucal series is ne- 
cessitated by the physiological position of the faucal point , the 
contraction of which closes at the same time the canal of the nose. 

The faucal series is confined, therefore, to the following four 
sounds, thus represented; > ' li h 

II. The Guttural Class. 

As we have already excluded the /i from this class, on account 
of its being pronounced behind the proper guttural point, we 
must, to be accurate, exclude the y also, and put it in the 
next following class, this sound being formed in the mouth 
before the guttural point. 

Again we are obliged to comprise a sound peculiar to the 
Semitic languages, viz. 

The Arabic o and Hebrew p qof, 
which is formed at the posterior soft part of the palate, although 
this class has its place of formation a little more forward, at 
the point where the velum palati, joins the hard palate. We 
indicate this sound by the sign which the Greeks and Romans 
substituted for it , although it cannot be proved that they pro- 
nounced it exactly in the same manner, viz. q. 

We obtain by this addition the following complete guttural 
series: k q g; n; j j (y); r 

III. The Palatal Class. 

We find in the Sanscrit a class of sounds placed between the 
gutturals and dentals by the Indian grammarians, who indicate 
as the place of their formation the hard palate (tcdu). 



41 

The first two sounds of this class being explosive, are pro- 
nounced by the natives, according to all descriptions, like the 
English cli and / in choice and join, or like the Italian c and g 
in cima and giro. These English and Italian sounds are, as 
no one that hears or pronounces them will doubt, compound 
sounds, beginning with a dental or lingual t or d, and termi- 
nating with 6' or z. But in the sacred Devanagari writing of 
the Indians, simple signs only represented simple sounds; and 
their language itself leaves not the least doubt that the sounds 
^ and W were really simple, not compound sounds. This is 
/proved, for instance, by their not rendering the preceding syl- 
lable long, and by the possibility of doubling them.^ These 
sounds were consequently pronounced originally in another man- 
ner than now, viz. as simple sounds. Even though we were 
not now able to define these sounds more accurately, we ought 
undoubtedly to indicate them in Sanscrit by a peculiar sign. 
For this purpose, Bopp and his school have introduced the mark ' 
over the letter. This we retain , and place it over all guttural 
letters when their palatal value is to be indicated. Thus we 
get the series: U g n; / x(f); y. 

A farther consideration of this phenomenon will show that 
a transformation of former gutturals into sibilant dentals has 
occurred also in other languages. The Greek y.ollov, i. e. koilon, 
became in the Latin language coelum, i. e. kolum, and is sounded 
in the modern Italian cielo, i. e. tselo; the Latin caseus, Ger- 
man Kdse, has become, in English, cheese, i. e. tslze; the Hebrew 
gamal (the camel), and the Arabic gemel, became gyemeP or 

* It is evident that in no language a compound sound can be doubled. If, 
resolving the English riches into its component sounds ritses^ one intended to 
double this sound, one could not write richches , i. e. ritstses (for that would 
sound as in ichioh child), but would only repeat the first element and write 
ritches, i. e ritlSes. Compare what is said below on the doubling of the aspirates. 

^ To t and d also, in many languages, a slight sound of y is added, without 
producing the impression of a compound letter. If in certain languages it 
should appear convenient not to designate this secondary sound as a complete 



42 

dyemel, afterwards dzemel, at last even zemel. Such transitions 
in the history of languages never take place suddenly, but always 
gradually. It is a very common phenomenon that the explo- 
sive letters first produce the corresponding fricative sounds be- 
hind them , and afterwards pass entirely into them , and that 
at the same time the gutturals advance constantly towards the 
anterior part of the mouth. 

In passing from the guttural to the dental point two other 
points may be distinguished , and have been fixed by several 
languages, namely, the 'palatal point and the lingual point. The 
former is situated almost in the middle of the hard palate. A 
11: or (T/, pronomiced at this point by pressing the broad middle 
part of the tongue on the palate, w^ill be easily distinguished 
from the deep gutturals q, k, oy g. Such a palatal /J is as 
dififerent from the guttural k as the German ch in icli^ from 

consonant, it would be very appropriate to introduce, for the sounds ly dy 
(or rather ty^ dy) the palatal line, and to write t' and rf', as y is indeed of 
a palatal nature, and communicates the same to the t and d. In some lan- 
guages, as for instance the Slavonic and the Chinese, it might appear even 
desirable, from etymological or other linguistic reasons, to deviate, in certain 
cases of affriction and sibilation , from the general principle of using simple 
signs only for simple sounds, and to employ simple signs for such double and, 
as it were, diphthongic sounds. In these cases, it would seem to us more 
convenient , instead of introducing new bases like c and j , to retain the same 
bases, modifying them by adding a diacritical sign, writing instead of %, gy, 
fy> *^y } '^? ^^' f^) ^^? the following: Ic, j, f', d, f, (/, t, d. In the Slavonic 
assibilated r, the r and i, are so completely mixed, tliat the sound can be 
rendered only r. 

^ This sound offers great difficulty to the English and French, who in 
hearing and speaking mostly substitute i^. It can hardly be doubted that the 
palatal sibilant "SJ in the Sanscrit, either is now (for the descriptions of En- 
glish scholars are not very accurate), or at least was originally, no other than 
this sound. It is now generally written i, and this sign would not offend 
against the system; yet, as at the palatal point, no sound can be formed that 
resembles a simple s, but only a sound similar to x ^^ ^5 ^^ '^ more accurate 
to write x i^^ "^X which ought to be introduced. If any one should think the 
designation too far differing from the usual one, he might perhaps prefer to 
write i or :?, which would at least render the actual pronunciation accu- 
rately enough. 



I 



43 

the cli in ach or Biich, or as the common German cli in Milch 
from the Swiss ch in the same word. 

In most languages k and g , before the vowels e, i, g, u, 
approach the palatal pronunciation, whilst before a, o, it they 
remain more guttural, owing to the formation of these vowels. 
In the Sanscrit the guttural and palatal pronunciation were 
distinguished before all vowels.^ 

The palatal sounds have, as their physiological formation will 
explain, the peculiarity of easily assuming a shade of 3/, which 
appears most distinctly in the palatal n and I? This slight 
shade which at first accompanies the palatal sound so closely 
that a fine ear perceives it as well before as after the moment 
of closing the organ in uttering the explosive sounds , increases 
afterwards easily, so as to become independent, and to grow 
into a full subsequent y ^ next into a ^^ finally into as s. Thus 
arises a series of compound sounds, which, from the palatal Jc 
through ky, JcJ(, tji[, ts, frequently pass into a simple s, or 
even s. 

In those languages in which, as in Sanscrit, the pure and 
simple palatal is found distinct from the gutturals , or in which 
the friction connected with the palatals appears to be so in- 
herent that in the organic construction of the language it may 
be considered as still forming a simple sound, it seems advi- 
sable also to retain the simple signs of Ic, g, n. But when the 

^ With regard to y (German cK) Germans do the same. They pronounce, 
for instance, the ch in all diminutives, even after a, o, and w, not guttural 
as in Aachen^ rauchen, Kucken, but palatal, as in Mamachen^ Frauchen, 
Uhuchen from Mama, Frau, Uhu. The guttural ch is pronounced after all 
vowels in the most southern parts of Germany. 

2 If, for instance, we pronounce the n and I in ano, fule, so as to press 
the broad middle of the tongue upon the high middle part of the hard palate, 
we shall no longer hear the French words anneau, and foule, but something 
very like agneau and fouille, with this difference only, that in the modern 
French pronunciation we do not raise the tongue quite up to the palate, but 
only bring it near it, so that the sound is more and more dissolved in y, 
ayeau, fouye. 






44 

compound sound is manifestly marked in pronunciation, every 
consistent transcription ought undoubtedly to represent it by 
two signs. Of the peculiar case, when in a foreign alphabet 
these sounds are represented as simple from their being ori- 
ginally such, whilst they are now pronounced as compound, 
we shall have to treat below. 

The series of pure palatal sounds will therefore be as follows : 

It is to be observed only that jp and the semivowel y are 
so near each other that the jp will hardly appear in any lan- 
guage as a distinct sound by the side of y. It is self-evident 
that y need not assume the palatal mark, as there is no cor- 
responding guttural sound. 

IV. The cerebral Class. 

This class, almost exclusively peculiar to the Indian lan- 
guages, is formed by bringing the tip of the tongue backwards 
and upwards to the neighbourhood of the palatal point, so as 
to produce there the explosion or friction. To our ear, these 
sounds are nearest to the dentals. We retain for them also 
the diacritical sign introduced by Bopp and his school, viz. 
the dot under the letter, and write this Indian series 
t d n; s; r I. 

V. The Lingual Class 

belongs as exclusively to the Arabic and cognate languages. 
In their formation, the breadth of the tongue either touches 
or approaches the whole anterior space of the hard palate as 
far as the teeth, its tip being turned below. It is consequently 
entirely different from the Indian cerebrals, although these, too, 
are frequently called Unguals. It appears, therefore, suitable 
to confine this latter denomination to the Arabic sounds, and 
to retain the former for the Indian. ^ 

^ Cerebral was the originalEuglish denominutiun, which arobc indeed i'lum 



45 

The graphic representation hitherto adopted by Robinson, 
Caspari, Davids, and others, is a dot under the dentals, like 
that of the cerebrals. We have chosen instead of the dot, after 
the precedent of Volney, a small line, which conveniently in- 
dicates the broad position of the tongue of the Arabic linguals, 
in contradistinction from the cerebral formation, and yet is 
little different from the dot hitherto used. The Arabs have 
developed only four letters of this class, namely: t d; s z. 

VI. The Dental Class 
exists complete in the European languages, and has been dis- 
cussed above. 

The essential distinction of the three fricative formations s, s 
and By together with the corresponding soft sounds z, z and B\ 
from the guttural and palatal^ ^"^^ X^ consists in the friction 
of the breath being formed and heard at the teeth. Modifications 
of this dental friction arise from the greater or smaller hollow 
space which the tongue leaves behind the teeth. When the 
tip of the tongue is placed at the very point of the friction, 6- 
is pronounced; if it is laid against the lower teeth, whilst the 
upper side of the tongue is brought back behind the upper teeth, 
we have s; when the tongue recedes still farther, so that behind 
the upper and lower teeth a greater hollow space remains, this 
enlarged resounding space produces the sound s. It would be 
possible to bring the posterior termination of the resounding space 
still farther back as far as to the palatal, or even to the guttural 
point; the cavity also of the canal of the mouth can be prolonged 
by means of the lips. This, however, produces, no essentially 
distinct impression upon our ear, but the purely dental element 
of the sound, i. e. the friction at the teeth, decidedly prevails.^ 

a false translation of the Indian name myrdd'anya, i, e. letters of the dome 
of the palate, but has not yet been supplied by a more appropriate one. 

^ The distinction of a double s exists, as far as we know, in Slavonic 
languages alone; there the formation next to the teeth (Pol. -s) may be marked 
as lingual, by placing the line under the letter. 



46 



The Indian cerebral -s^ however, receives from the peculiar 
flexion of the tongue, which produces a double cavity in the 
mouth, a somewhat dijBPerent expression, indicated by the cere- 
bral point. 

The dental series remains, therefore, the same as above, 
t d n; s z; s z; €■ €^(d); r L 

VII. The Labial Class 

is also known from European languages, and has been deve- 
loped above, p b m; f v; w. 

If we now comprise the seven classes in a general tableau, 
we obtain the following arrangement: 



The Consonants of the General Alphabet. 





explosivce or 


dividual. 


fricativw or coniinuce. 




fortis. 




lenis. 


nasalis. 


fortis 




lenis semivoc. 


I. Faucales. 


/ 




' 




n 


Jl 




11. Gutturales. 


k 


9. 


9 


n 


X 




x^r) 


III. Palatales. 


k 




9 


n 


X 




X y 


IV. Cerehrales. 


t 




4 


n 


s 




^ 


(Indicae) 
















V. Lingiiales. 


t 




d 


n 


s 




z 


(Arabicae) 










[' 




^ 


VI. Dentales, 


t 




d 


n 


I 




z 


VII. LaUales. 


P 




h 


m 


/ 




V w 



ancipites. 



r I 



Examples of the Pronunciation of these Sounds i7i an 
Alphabetic Series. 
We arrange these examples in an order which, in vocabu- 
laries of foreign languages, especially such as are rich in sounds, 
offers decided advantages over the usual one , viz. according to 
the organs. The Semitic alphabet, from which our common 
order is derived, had originally itself an organic arrangement, 



47 

which in course of time has been ahuost obliterated.^ At pre- 
sent the order of our alphabet appears utterly confused, and 
it seems as little justifiable, as it is inconvenient, to force the 
same confusion, or even a greater one, upon all those new 
discovered languages which are to be presented with the art 
of writing. The inconvenience will be at once felt, when a 
vocabulary is to be formed , especially with regard to the new 
signs ' / I and ^. 

Our alphabetic tableau shows at first sight that an organic 
arrangement can be attained in a double manner, viz. by fol- 
lowing either the vertical columns (as the Semitic and the oldest 
Sanscrit alphabets did essentially) or the horizontal ones, like 
the Devanagari. We should prefer the latter one, if it did not 
labour under the disadvantage of separating from each other 
those letters which in the different classes have the same bases. 
By following the vertical columns, we keep all those letters 
together, so that, without great inconvenience, the diacritical 
signs might even be entirely neglected in the alphabetical ar- 
rangement. Only J and j, ^ and ^' would be separated, if it 
should not be preferred to write / and d. In books, however, 
which are only destined for the European science , and in which 
few new characters or diacritical signs are to be employed, it 
is preferable not to alter the usual order of letters. 



VOAVELS. 

a engl. father, fr. dme. 

a ger. Mann, ital. hallo, 

e fr. mere, ger. Bar. 

e engl. happy. 

e ger. recht, wenn. 



e 


engl. cane, vein, fr. donne. 


e 


engl. men. 


I 


engl. see, fr. lit. 


i 


engl. sin, fr. fil. 





engl. all, ital. pero. 


6 
6 


engl. hot, not. 
O'er. von. 



^ See the author's Essay: Ueber die Anordnung und Verwandtschaft des 
Semitischen , Indischen, Aethiopischen , Alt-Persischen und Alt-Aegyptischen 
Alphabets. Berlin, 1836. 



48 



p engl. 710, fr. fau.r. 

u engl. rule, fr. nous. 

u engl. foot, fr. ours, 

g fr. beurre, coeur. 

o engl. current. 

ger. Konig , fr. /(?^^. 
w ir. fumes, ger. 6^w^<?. 
1^ fr. 5w^, ger. wurdig. 

ai engl- mm^, ger. Kaiser, 

au engl. house, ger. Haus. 

au ger. Hduser, Jieute. 

ei span, reina. 

01 engl. yom. 
a fr. a^, 67z. 

^ fr. examen, Inde. 

fr. 07i. 

fr. w^. 

e engl. nation, ger. Verstand. 

r sanscr. '^. 

o 

1 sanscr. ^. 

z chin mandar. tsz. -4- 

Consonants. 

A. Explosive, a. Fortes. 
I arab. ^ (>din). 
q arab. o (qaf). 
k engl. cooZ, fr. cause. 
Ic sanscr. ^. 
t sanscr. Z. 
t arab. _b (td). 
t engl. ^o^(?7^, fr. ton. 
p engl. ^me, fr. peu. 
b. Lenes. 

^ arab. |, hebr. n* Calef), gr. 
spir. len. \ 



^ engl. gold, fr. gauche. 

g sanscr. W, arab. gemel. 

d sanscr. ^. 

d arab. c>^ (^«^. 

d engl. c?ear. 

6 engl. by. 

c. Nasales. 

n engl. singing, ger. ^?^(7^. 

^ sanscr. '^, ital. gnudo. 

n sanscr. IIT. 

n engl. :?^o. 

m engl. me. 

B. Fricativae. «. Fortes. 
h arab. ^ (Aa). 
h engl. A<x?z<:/. 

^ g. Buch, ach; pol. chata. 
j( sanscr. 'SJ, ger. ich, recht. 
s sanscr. '^. 
I pol. s'wit. 
s arab. l>^ fsac?^. 
s engl. sAoM?, fr. (?A«?^, ger. scho7i. 
s engl. 5m5^j fr. savoir. 
d (0) engl. thin, mod. gr. tVeoc:. 
/ engl./w6. 

6. Lenes. 
jf (^/^ arab. 5(j«wz), modern 

gr. y€(pVQa. 
z pol. pozno. 
z arab. Ji? (|^«). 
;: fr.jeune, pol. hazant. 
z fr. ^r^Z^^ engl. ^mZ. 
^Y^>^ engl. f/^?/, mod. gr. di4.ta. 



49 



c. Semivocales. r ital. rabbia. 

y englyear,fr.Bayomie,geY.ja. /■ gr. ^afiSog. 

w engl. we. I' ital. gli. 

C. LiQuiDAE. ?' welsh //. 

/■ germ, and fr. dial. / sanscr. B5. 

r sanscr. T- ^ engl. law. 



On the Aspirates and Consonantal Diphthongs. 

Aspirates are those explosive sounds which are pronounced with 
a simple but audible breath. This class has been most fully 
developed in the Sanscrit, where ihQ fortes as well as the lenes 
of all classes can be aspirated in this manner. In the ancient 
Greek only the fortes admitted of the aspiration, and these 
afterwards passed into the corresponding fricatives. The aspi- 
ration can only follow the explosion , not accompany it through- 
out, as it does the friction of the fricatives. Thus, a real 
composition takes place. ^ If, notwithstanding this, the aspirates 
are represented in the Sanscrit as simple letters, this is to be 
explained by the circumstance, that the spiritus unites itself 
more closely with the explosive letters than any other conso- 
nant, and is of so little weight, that it does not make the pre- 
ceding syllable long, and is, properly speaking, no more than 
an increase of the breath necessarily inherent in every conso- 
nant. It is optional, therefore, either to regard the aspirates 
as simple consonants, or as compositions with h. In this case, 
we think it proper to follow the system of the diflPerent nations, 
retaining, for instance, in the Indian aspirates, the simple 
bases, with the addition of the diacritical spiritus asper, and 
writing U E f f p g g cj d B, whilst in the Hindoostanee, 

* The best linguistic proof is, that no aspirate can be doubled; when a 
duplication is intended, the unaspirated sound is placed before the aspirate. 
From aka arises by reduplication not akka, but ahka. 

Dl 



50 

where the aspiration is treated as a new and independent ele- 
ment, we shall write hh, Bi. 

We call those combinations of consonants consonantal diph- 
thongs in which an explosive sound is combined with the cor- 
respondent fricative, as in kj, J(:j, tsj cU, ts, dz, pf, and others. 
The history of languages shows that these sounds are parti- 
cularly easy of formation, and arise frequently out of the 
simple sounds by a subsequent friction. This etymology is the 
reason why they are often represented by simple signs, as the 
Italian c and g for ts^ dz; the German z for ts; Greek C for dz. 
Our principles, however, v^^ill oblige us to resolve all such 
diphthongs into their simple elements, wherever the real pro- 
nunciation, not the etymological origin, is to be indicated. 

As for double consonants, it will readily be granted, that they 
ought not to be employed merely to show that the preceding- 
vowel is short and accentuated, but oijly where the duplication 
(from the prolongation of the friction or of the moment of 
touching) is distinctly heard, as in the Arabic or Italian, or 
the double letter is justified etymologically , as originating in 
the assimilation of different consonants, or wherever nothing- 
is intended , but a transcription of a foreign orthography, which 
makes use of double letters. « 

On the Application of the General Alphabet to the Alphabets of 
particular Languages. 

It has been remarked above, that the general alphabet, when 
applied to particular languages, must be capable as well of 
simplification as of enlargement. All particular diacritical marks 
are unnecessary in those languages where none of the bases 
have a double value; and we write simply^, ^, c, o. Where 
two sounds belong to the same basis, one only of the signs is 
wanted; and we may write j and ^> 0' and {f, e and e, g and 
P, Q and 0. Where, however, the intermediate sound exists 
between the two constrasted sounds, both the diacritical signs 



51 

are indispensable. ^ They are required also, when two or more 
languages are to be compared with each other, in which the 
indifferent or imperfectly known sound of the one is placed by 
the side of the developed contrast in the other.- Again, the 
same diacritical marks may be used in connection with other 
than the above-mentioned letters, whenever in particular lan- 
guages such variations appear. 

If further essential differences should be shown, which are 
not yet represented in the general alphabet, and cannot be ex- 
pressed analogically, nothing prevents the selection, or, if ne- 
cessary, invention of other new diacritical signs, without de- 
viating from the principles above developed. 

Among these latter cases we may reckon, for instance, the 
clicks of the southernmost African languages, which are formed, 
not by throwing out the breath, but by drawing it inward. 
We often produce the same clicks by the same movements of 
the tongue , but do not use them as articulate elements of speech. 

In the Hottentot language there are four clicks, in the Zuhc 
and other languages of the great African branch only three. 
When isolated, these sounds are not difficult to pronounce. 

The first, which had been written hitherto q, is made by 
pressing the tongue closely upon the middle palate and with- 
drawing it suddenly, and from the place of its formation is to 
be reckoned among the cerebrals. The second (found princi- 
pally in the Hottentot, but, according to Boyce% also in some 
words of the Kaffir language), arises, from placing the breadth 

^ In the German (compare Grimm , Gramm, I , p. 78 , 79.) the contrast iy 
developed only in the long e and e and the long go, to which a short e and 
6 correspond. In most languages the short vowels are not so accurately dif- 
ferenced as the long ones; this is the reason why the former were not in- 
dicated at all in the most ancient languages. 

^ For instance, when the Latin, or Greek, or Gothic c and o is to be com- 
pared with the French e and c, the Italian 6 and o. 

^ Grammar of the Kaffir Language , p. 4. He writes it qc. I myself heard 
it pronounced by Zulu Kaffirs. 



52 

of the tongue in the palatal position, and withdrawing it with 
a suction. The third, generally written c, is in the same 
manner dental y as only the tip of the tongue smacks against 
the upper teeth. The fourth is formed at the side of the tongue, 
by drawing in the air towards the middle of the mouth from 
the right or left side. It has been called lateral , therefore, 
and generally rendered by x. 

The pronunciation of these sounds becomes difficult only 
when they are connected with other sounds. Whilst the an- 
terior part of the tongue is smacking, the throat can open it- 
self for Si g Qv n, so that these latter sounds are pronounced 
almost at the same time with the click, or immediately after 
it.^ It is incorrect to write the gutturals before the clicks, as 
they can never be pronounced before them. 

At the same time, the choice of c, q, and x, as signs of 
clicks, appears to be inconvenient, since they are taken from 
the European alphabets, in which they express well known 
sounds, not bearing any relation to the clicks. Essential to 
the latter is the peculiarity of stopping in part, and even drawing 
back the breath, which appears to be most easily expressed by 
a simple bar /. If we connect with this our common marks 
for the cerebral or the palatal, a peculiar notation is wanted 
only for the lateral, which is the strongest sound. We propose 
to express it by two bars //. As the gutturals evidently do not 
unite with the clicks into one sound,^ but form a compound sound, 



^ Boyce distinguishes only two accompanying gutturals, which he writes 
g and n ; Appleyard and Grout mention three , g and two nasals , n and ng 
(n). The auther himself could only distinguish two gutturals, g and it, as 
connected with clicks by the Zulu Kaffirs, who in the beginning of 1854, 
sojourned for some time in Berlin. 

2 We cannot, therefore, assent to Grout, who, instead of the former no- 
tation proposes the following: 

q ij (J q 

c c c <• 

X XXX 



53 

we may make them simply to follow, as with the diphthongs. 
Thus we get the tableau: 

Palatals (qc) f — — 

Cerebrals (q) / ig in 

Dentals (c) i ig in 

Laterals (x) a iig iih 

The difficulty of transcription is greatest in those systems of 
writing which , originating in an earlier period of the language, 
and fully developed, have been retained unaltered, whilst the 
pronunciation has undergone a change, as also in those in which 
several reformations have left their traces. An instance of this 
kind has already been mentioned in speaking of the Sanscrit 
palatals. The differences of European orthography have mostly 
arisen from similar circumstances. Some such difficulties, how- 
ever, are presented by almost all existing alphabets which are 
not of modern formation. As the object of a standard tran- 
scription is to avoid, as much as possible , all such incongruity 
of sound and sign , no other course remains open in such cases 
than to ^:^ upon a distinct period of the language in question, 
and to adapt its transcription to the different purposes of ren- 
dering either the actual pronunciation , or the ancient one which 
had been expressed by the alphabet, and which may be deduced 
from it by linguistic researches. The difference is generally 
found to be greater in the vowels than in the consonants, 
the former being, in all languages, the more changeable 
element. 

The Arabs write only three vowels, but pronounce these three 
letters very differently, according to distinct rules; in like man- 
ner, a certain number of consonants have a different pronun- 
ciation in different dialects, although in literature they arc 
expressed by means of one and the same written letter. Eli 
Smith and Robinson (in the work on Palestine) propose to re- 
present the actual pronunciation in the country, and their en- 



54 

dcavours are to be highly prized;^ but the linguistic scholar 
will prefer to follow the written system fixed by literature, and 
to neglect the varying deviations and shades of modern pro- 
nunciation. The Armenian alphabet has also undergone pecu- 
liar alterations of pronunciation , which may be historically pro- 
ved.^ The greatest difficulties, however, are met with in tran- 
scribing the Hebrew system of punctuation , which , having only 
in after times been grafted upon the alphabet inherited from 
former ages, appears to be inconsistent in itself. The labours 
of modern scholars, in elucidating the historical development 
of these signs, and comparing it with the traditional and actual 
pronunciation of the Jews, have not yet led to results on which 
a complete and well-founded system of transcription might 
be based. 

In conclusion , we present the reader with a number of alpha- 
bets transcribed after our own system. We are aware that in 
many instances further researches must correct and complete 
our labours. We have followed the best and latest investiga- 
tions to which we had access in each individual language. The 
attempt is intended to show the easy applicability of our alpha- 
bet to the most different languages ; and to induce scholars to 
follow in the same way, and eventually to correct and improve 
the details. 

^ Compare also the excellent essay of Lane on the modern pronunciation 
of the Arabic vowels, inserted in the publications of the German Oriental Society. 
^ See Petermann, Grammatica Armenica. 



Berlin , printed by C. and F. Unprer. 



I 



55 



AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 



Hottentot, JTomna Dialect. Appleyard, ATo/r Gramm. 1850. p. 17. 
JiJi a aa x h 

XX^ y ^ ^^ ^ ^^ k g ng kh ch j 

s - r I i utdns-rl 

- ' \ w ei au p b m - - to 

ts ts c z 

Clicks Clicks 

Palat. /, Cerebr. /, Dent. /, Later.// =- v, Palat. q. Dent./, Later, y. 



a a 
e S k g n 
i u t d n 

ai au p h m 



Hottentot, iV«mo Dial. Kniidsen, Nama A. B. Z. Capetown. tS/is. 





h 






h 


kg. 


X 


y 


k g - 


G 


t d n 


s 


r{l) 


t d n 


S 


(p) b m 


00 


w 


(p) b m 


if) 


ts 






z 


a 


Clicks 


a 


CI 


e (q) 


/ / / // 


e(q)o 




i {u) u 




i (y) u 




a e t u 




"a "e "i "o "u 




ai au ae ei o 


i ou u 


i 







W 



Wallniann, Vocabular und Formenlehre der Namaqua- 
Spraclie. Barmen. 1854. 8. 

a h Clicks 

e k g ng ch 

i u t d n 8 r 

d e i 6 li - b m - w 

at an ae ei oi ou %d z 



56 



Kafir, UOsa {Jmallosa) Dial. Appleyard, Kafir Granini. IsSd 

(Boyce 1S44). 



a a 


h 






a 


h 






e e 6 h g n 


XX 






e k g ng 


r r 






i ' u It g n 


8 - 


y 


1 


i u ty dy ny 


sh - 


y 


did {thl) 


ai au t d n 


s z 




n 


ai au t d n 


8 z 




I hi 


p b m 


fv 


w 




p h m 


fv 


w 




tsdzxl 


tscJi j kl (khl) 


•Clicks 


Clicks 




{')!' 


11 




{qc) qcx 









Kafir, Zulu Dialect. L. Grout, 1S52. Journ. of the Amer. Or. See. 

vol. III. No. II. p. 421. 



h 
XX 

6' - 
5 Z 

fv 

tS kjrjl 



kg n 
It g n 
tdn 
phm 



k g ng 

y 1 tsJi, ty dsh,j ny 
rlt t d n 



w 



m 



Q\ r r 
sh 

s z 

/ « 



fe7( , tch r,'r,M,'kl('k,i) Id, thl 



y U 

(h t) 
rl hi 

(?) 

w 



a a 

€ i 

it uu 

ai au ao eu 

Clicks 
Pal. Cer. Dent. Later. 
/ / / (I 

1 9 19 I 9 "9 
in in in un 



a 

e 
i u 

ai ail ao eu 



Clicks 

— Palat. Dent. Laloi. 

— q C X 

— ^^fe), ^^(^) 9^['^) 

— ngq (q) ngc [c) ngx (x) 
\nq [q) nc (c) nx (x)] 



57 
Tsudna {Setsuana, Bet sua na). Appleyard, Kafir Gr. 1 850. p. 5 1. 



a 




h 






a 




h 




e 


k - n 


XX 


y 


? 


e 


k - ng 


khg 


y hi 


i u 


t d n 


s - 


r I 


7 


i u 


t d n 


8 - 


Till 




p b m 


/« 


w 






p b m 


/ « 


w 



ts xl 



c. ch Ml 



Kiia (Malma, Mosambique). From oral communications by 

Prof. W. Peters. \SSh. 



a a 



e e 







e e 



1 1 



k g n 

k g n 

t d n 

uu p b m 

ts dz 



h 

s z 
s z 



y 

r I I 



w 



Swdheli (Kisudhell). Krapf, Outline of the elem. of the Kisudheli 

lang. 1850. 



a k g (n) 

e 
e t d n 

i u 

ai au ei oi p b m 



Xh 


s z 


s z 


^ 


f^ 



y 



kg (n) 
t d n 



r I e 

i u 

w ai au ei oi p b m 



c h 


?/ 


8 - 


t d 


fv 



y 

r I 

w 



ts dz ts dz 



tj j ts z 



Herero. C. Hugo Hahn, Grundziige einer Grammatik des Herero^ 
nebst Vocabular. 1855. (Rhein. Miss.) 



a 


k g n 


e 


k g n 


i u 


t d n 


aiau 


p b m 


Mpongwe. 





s y 

s z 

- V 



Printed according to the Stan- 
r {I) dard Alphabet. 



\ Gramm. of the Mponguc lang. New- York. 1S47. 
(Am. Board on the Gabun) 



a k g n 

e e k g n 

it uu t d n 

ai au p b m 



s - 
s z 



d k g n 

y ee 6 ty j ny 

rl i i uu t d n 

w ai au p b m 

E2 



sh - 
8 z 
f 



y 

r I 

10 



58 



Fernando Po, John Clarke, Introd. to the Fernandian tongue. 
Parti. 2^ ed. Berwick on Tweed. 1S48. (Bapt.Miss.) 



a a 

e e 

it uu 

au 

Yoruha, 



kg n 


h - 


t d n 


s - 


p h m 


f^ 



y 

T I 

w 



ts dz kw 



a 
e 

i y w 

OIC 



kg n 

t d n 

p b on 



fv 



y 

r I 
w 



tsh j q 



S. Crowther, a Gramm. and Vocab. of the Yoruba lang. 
Seeleys and London. 1852. (Ch. Miss.) 



a 

§ Q 

§ 9 

i u 

ai ei pi oi 

Oil 



k g n 

t dn 
[p) h m 



y 

rl 

w 



ts dz kp gh 



e () 
■ e 
i u 

ai ei oi oi 



kg ng 

t d n 
ip) h m 



h 



f 



y 



r I 
w 



c,t8 j kp gh 



11. N. Rlfs, Eleniente des Akivapim-\)\2\(ki& der 
Odsrhi Sprarhe. Basel. 1853. ,S. 



k gn 


h 


Igk 


X 


t dn 


s z 


p hm 


fv 



k g n 
ty, {dsch) dy ny 
t d n 
V h m 



h 
c 

s s 



y 

r 
w 



a a 



e e 
~ ~ o 

e e " 



a a 

e e 
e e ' 



XlUUU t I 1.1 11 u 

ai ei oi oi ai n oi oi 

According to Christaller (Ch. Miss.) there are two sounds t' (t/) and d (r/j) 
differing from K {hf) and g (g/.) 



Susu. 



I. W. G. (Amer. Board on the Gabun), on the Susu 
Dinlect. (Amer. Or. Soc. vol. I. no. IV. is4.9. p. 365). 



a 


k g n 


X 


y 


r 


a 


k g ng 


kh 


y 


rh 


e 




s 






e 




sJi 






%i 


t d n 


s 




r I 


i f/ 


t d, n 


s 




r I 




p h m 


f 


w 






p h m 


f 


w 






dz 










d 


:h 







59 



Mdnde {Mandenga, Mandingo). Macbralr, a Gramm. of the 

Mandingo hw^.honAon. [^11. 











(Wesl. iMlss 


•) 




i 


h g n 


h 


y 


a kg ng 


h 


y 


a 


t d n 


s 


r I 


a t d n 


s 


rl 


e 


p h m 


f 


w 


e,ey o p b m 


f 


10 


i u 


ts dz 


I u tj j 


ai oi ate 








ei oi au 







Vei. 



S. W. Koelle, Outlines of a Gr. of the P^ei lang. 
London. 1853. (Ch. Miss.) 



a k g n 


^x 


y a hgw 


hr 


y 


e t dn 


s z 


rl e t d n 


s z 


r I 


e p h m 


fv 


w e,e pb m 


fv 


10 


e ts dz gh e b ds ds gb 


i u i u 


au ai ei ei ou ou 




au ai ei ei oic ou 







O'lof {JVolof, Yolof). Roger, Rech. phllos. siir la lang. Ounlofc 

Paris. 1829. 



9 


kgn 


Xh 


a 


Icgn 


s z 


eg Q 


tdn 


s z 


^ 9 Q 


pb m 


fv 



e k g,gh ng 

y a ki glii gn 

rlc^e'eo t d n 

w e eu 6 p b m 



kJiJir h ( 



I. 



/ v w 



% u u 



ts dz 



U 07C 



tell dj 



Ilousa. 



Sclion, Vocab. of the Haussa langu. London. 1843. 
(Ch. Miss.) 



r I 



§ 


kgn 


hy 




e 


k (J ng 


hy 




a 


tdn 


s z 


rl 


a 


t d n 


s z 


1 


e 


p b m 


fv 




e 


p b nt 


fw 




u 


ts dz ts dz gb 


i K 


tsh tsh ds ds gb 


xi oi 








^i oi 









60 



Kdnuri (Bornu). S. W. Koelle, Grammar of the Bornu or Kdnuri 
language, London. 1854. and African native li- 
terature and a Kdnuri-Y^n- 
glish Vocabulary. London. 

1 851 



Printed according to the 
Standard Alphabet. 



i 


k g n 


h - 


y 


« 




s - 




a 


t d n 


s z 


r I 


e Q 


p b on 


/- 


w 


e 


ts dz ts dz 




^ 






i u 






ai au ei oi ou ui 







Nuhisch. Lepsius, Grundziige deriVMiwc^tf/z Grammatik nndi NubiscJi- 
Deutsches Worterbuch. Berlin. 1856. and Das 
Evangelium Marci Nubisch. 
Berlin 1856. 



a a 

€ e 

it u it 

ai au 



k g n 


h 


U g n 


s 


t d n 


s 


p b m 


f 



y 

r I 

w 



Printed according to the 
Standard Alphabet. 



Kongara {J}ar Fur), Lepsius, Grundziige der Grammatik und 

Wortverzeichnifs der Arong-ara Sprache. 



a a 


k g n 


(h) 


e e 


Kg A 


- 


it u it 


t d n 


8 


ai au 


p b m 


f 



y 

r I 

w 



Printed according to the 
Standard Alphabet. 



Galla, 



Ch. Tutschek, a Gramm. of the Galla language. 
Munich. 1845. 



y 





h 


kg - 


- - 


k g n 


i- 


t d - 


s z 


t dn 


s z 


p b m 


fv 



ts dz 



rl 



f- ' - 


h 


k g - 


- 


c^q d n 


ch - 


u ^ dy ' 


/ 7 

z z 


t d n 


9 - 


]) h m 


/ l^ 



r I 



fch, tiih, fz, tz dj, d'z\dz 



61 



Hieroglyphic^ Lepslus, Das Buch der Aegyptlschen Konige. 1855. 



(?) 

a 
i u 



Koptic. 





h 


k - - 


X 




s 


t - n 


s 


p b m 


f 



r(l) 



J 





h 




k g in) 


X 




Rg{n) 


s 


(y) 


t[d] n 


s 


r I 


p b m 


f 


(w) 



m 





z 




K ^ (n) 


sS 




^^(n) 


13 


(0 


-f W « 


c 


pA 


II £l Al 


^ 


(OT) 



[X] 

W 



^s ^s [&] 



^*w 



a 

e e 

i u 

ai au ei oi 

Bega. (Bisdri) 

a - > - 

e 6 k g n 

il u u (k) g - 

t d n 

t d n 

p b m 



en o oj 
d.1 e».ir ei oi 



kw 



s 
s 

f 

gw 



y 

r I 

w 



Lepsius, Grundzuge der Gramni. und 
Wortverzeichnifs der Bega Sprache. 

Printed according to the 
Standard Alphabet. 



Abyssinian, Ge^'ez. Ludol jjfi, Gramm. Acihiopica. Francof. a. ]M. 1 70 



kg 



a a 
e 
i I uu t d n 

pb m 



hh 


1 


x- 


y 


8 - 




S Z 


rl 


f - 


w 



k g 



a a 
e no 

i i u u t d 11 

p h m 



s - 
s z 
f- 



y 



tS t8' 



tz tz- 



62 



Jibjssinian, Amhara. Isenberg, Gramm. of the Amharic lang. 

London. 1842. (Ch. Miss.) 



§ > ' - 


Rh 






e 


a a _ 


h h 






a a k g - 


xi 




t 


a I 


kg- 


h ch 




t 


6 6 Jc g n 


#- 


y 


k' 


e 


tshjgn 


s - 


y 


tsh 


it uu 


8 Z 




" 


tee uoo 




shzsh 






t dn 


S Z 


rl 


t' 




t d n 


8 Z 


rl 


t' 


p bm 


/- 


w 


p> 




p b m 


f - 


w 


P" 


ts 


ts' 








U 


ts' 







ASIATIC LANGUAGES. 



He 


brew. 


Without vowel points. 








S 


>* ' - 


h 


- 


y N - 


M 




(a) 

i u 


2 

k g - 
t 


X 

8 


" ^ 


P 


n 






t d n 


8 Z 


rl 


n -7 D 


DT 


-1 r^ 




p b m 


- 




2 :: '/a 


- 




§ 


With 
/ * - 


VOW( 

h 


il points^ 


::;&<- 


n 


a a 


2 


XX 


— - 


V 


r, '^ 


ee 
i % u u 


hg^ 
t 


s - 


y — -r - 

0-) 


— 3 5- 










8- 


"7 ''"T 


— ^ 


^ 






tdn 


8 Z 


rl i-r) 


. SP ^ .: 


r. 1 






p bm 


f 


'V 


m 




5' r 


"/S 


£ 3 



n*:) 



63 



Arabic. 



aa / ' - 


li h 


it uu q 






XX 

§ ? 




s - 


t d n 


s z 




^ 


- hm 


/- 



\' 



L5_r_ ^-^ 



rl 



w 



t ' 

JO ijo 



O 



c 


8 


t 


Jo 




- 


u^ 


J 


o 


L> 


lJ 


- 



IJber die Aussprache des Arabischen v. Eli Smith 

bei Robinson, Palastina, Bd. Ill, Abth. IT, 

p. S32 ff. Halle 18 J2. 





= 1 


h 


h 


ad 


k,9 






i i u li 


^ 9 J - 


kh : 


gh 


ui OAi 


f d, dh - 


sh 


?-> dh, d 




t d n 


s 


- 






th, t, s 


dh, d, z 




h m 


J 


- 



r I 



According to the actual Pronunciation : Smith and Robinson. 



e 


i > 
> 


Kh 




u 


3 1 


h h 


a a 


1 






a a 


k 




e e 


hg- 


xi 




e ei o 


k (J - 


khgh 


it u uu 


Ig. 




y 


i i y uu 


{ch)j - 


- - 




td- 


§ z 






t d - 


s z 


ai di au 




s - 




ai di au 




sh - 




t d n 


s z 

^0 


rl 




t d n 


8 Z 

th dh 




- b m 


/- 


w 




- /; nt 


f - 



rl 



64 



Persian, 



aa 


/ ' 


Jih 


i I uu 


9. 






kg^ 


XX 


ai au di ui 


Ug- 






td- 


§ ^ 
s z 




t d n 


s z 




p b m 


/- 



Gramiii. v. Mirza Moh'. Ibrahim, aus d; Engl. 
V. Fleischer. 1847. 

a d ' 

i i u li k 

y k g - 

ai au di ui c g 

t z 

^ J 
r I t d n 8 z r I 

w 





h h 


- 


bcj 


_ 


s z 




sj 


n 


s z 




s z 


m 


f- 



Sanscrit, 



a a 
it u u 
T f I I a I etc. 

e o o o 

ai (e) ai au (o) au ar dr 



k g n 
k g n 
t d n 
t d n 
p h m 



h : 




n 




i(^0 


y 


^ 


rl 


s 


I 


o 

n 


V 



kg' 
leg 
f (f 
f d 
p B 





^m 


[ 




zi ^-^ 




^ ^ ^ ^. ^ t 

^ ^ ir ir 3^^ 


etc. 




^ : 






^\T\^ 


u 




^ ^ 


^ ?f of 


5r 


?T 


^ ^ 


z zm 


^ 


i ^ 


•6 ^ 


rr ^sq- 


^ 


^ 


n ^j 


^ ^-^ 


n 


^ 


qr H 



Bopp, Vergieicheadc 
Gramm. Berlin. 1S3J. 



a a 
i i u u 

1 f , an in etc. 

c di 6 die ar dr 



H. H. Wilson, according to private 

communication 1854: Sanscrit, 

Hindi, Marathi, Bengali. 

ad 
i i ■ u u 
ri ri an in etc, 

e ai ai' 



65 



k g n 

c (j n 

t d n 

t d n 

V b m 



h K. 




s 


3/ 


s' 


r ... 


s . 


.1 


... 


V 



Jc g 

f f 
f d: 





h.h 




k g 'n 


... 




ch j n 


s 


y 


t d n 


sh 


r 


t d n 


s 


I 


p h m 




V 



kh gh 
chh jh 
th dh 
th dh 
ph hh 



Bengali. 



a a 

e 

il u% 

r f I t a 

ai au 



Graves Chamney Haughton, Riidim. o^ Bengali 
Grammar. Lond. I82i. 

6 a 
e 6 ■ ■ 

ii uu 

ri rl li ll dug 
oi ou 



k g n 
k g n 
t d n 
t d n 
p h m 



y 

T 
l 

w 



leg' 
f ^ 

f d: 
B p 



k g ng 

ch j ny 

t d n 


h 
sh 


y 

r 


t d n 


s 


I 


p b m 


- 


V, w 



kh gh 
chh jh 
th dh 
th dh 
ph bh 



Zend, 



q ' 


h 


c 


ii^-U 


ev 


aa k g n 

e e k gn 


XX 
X^ 


y f;o \>\ 


3 (P 5 




il uu t d ^ 
a etc. t d n 
ai au 

p h m 


s z 
s z 

^& 

fv 


w 






(ah hm at 6 


k) 


(exv 


^2^ ce>o 


j^) 



4 » 



66 



iJiirnouf, Commeiilaire hut le 
Yacna. 1S3.3. 



^ q 9 

ad k g ng 

e e 06 tch dj ng 

' I %i II t t - 

d,n t d n 

di do 

p h m 



h 
kh gh 

9 ' 

ch j 

s z 

th dh 

f w 



Bopp, Yergl. Gramm. Berl. 
18 53. 
e kh ... 

a d k g n 

e e 06 c g - 
i II u t - - 

an^ n t d n 

di do 

p b m 



h 


c gh 


s - 


s sh 


s z 


tdh 


f w 



Brockhaus, Vendidad Sade. Leipzig \8A9. 



q... 

k g n 

c j n 

t - - 

t d n 

p b m 

Armenian, 

Ancient pronunciation. 



a a 

e e 06 

% i u it 

«, n 

di do 



h 

kh gh 

9 - 

sh J 

s z 

th dh 

f ^ 



§ 




h 




a 


kg- 


XX 




ee 06 


kg- 




y 


u 


t d - 


s z 






t d n 


s z 


rrl 




p h m 


/- 


w 



k 't 






u 2_ 






E Ir 1^ n o « « - 

i X i - 

t in iL % 

P III ^ iT 

Actual pronunciation. Petcrniann, Gramm. ling. Armenicae. Berol. 1837 

e ■ . U h 

U cb g k - chg 

ts c'e 06 c g - 

i u li 

ts (li cm t d - 

f d t n 

p h p m 



a 9 k - 

e e 06 ts dz - 

u u 
ai au ts dz - 
d t n 
b pm 



lih 




XX 






y 


s z 




s z 


rr I 


f(v) 


w 



s ?. 



fv 



rrl 
w 



i 



67 



Georgian and Ossitinian. Hosen,a9.f^//.u//eSpraclilehre.Lenigo 



IS 40. /I 



a 


^ 


h 






a q 


h 






e 


k g - 


XX 




Jc e 


k g - 


oil gli 




IJ 


u 


leg- 


s z 






u c g - 


s z 




- 




t d n 


s z 


T I 


f 


t d n 


s z 


r I 


f 




p b m 


/- 


w 


P 


p h m 


f w 


- 


P 



ts dz 



U dz 



Albanian, (Europa) J. G. v. Hahn, Albanesische Studien. Wien. 

I 853. 



o 

a 

e 

i u u 

d ei u 

ai{av) ei ui 





h 


k g n 


xi 


k gii 


xy 




8 Z 


t d n 


8 Z 




^^' 


p h m 


/^ 



ot -i^, J V 



L 'J Q'J 

rrl ai> sv etc. t d 



Oil {ay) SL 01 



b m 



ts dz ts dz ks ps 



X 


X r 


X J 


(T cr 


^^ 


^ 


*/3 



a; 

P 99 >^ 



rr 



dir TO- dfT ^ '^ 



Hindustani. 



a a / * 

e 6 q 

it uu k g - 

d e % u k g - 
t d ' 
t d - 
t d n 



W. Yates, Iiitrod. to the Hindustani Ian 
Calcutta. 1843. 



ffU. 



ai aic 



p b m 



nix 


xi 


8 Z 


S Z 


S Z 


^ {/ 


/ - 



a a — - .... 
e q 

ii uu k g - 

y an etc. ch j - 

T (d au t d - 

t z - 

r I t d n 



w 



p 6 )it 



h h 




kli gh 




- - 


y 


sh zh 


T 


s z 




s z 


r 


8 Z 




f - 


IV 



68 



Gilchrist, aGramm, o( the Hindoos fani H.H.Wilson, according to pri- 
langu. Calcutta. 1796. vate communication. 1854. 



ua 

e q 

i ee . 00 00 kg - 

an etc. ch j - 

y ou t d - 

tw thw - 

t d n 

p h m 



hh 


h 


kh 


gh 


sh 


zh 


sw 


th 


s 


z 


f 





a a 
e 
■ ii u 

y an etc. 
r ai au 

rl 
w 



di a 


h h 


k 




k g - 


khgh 


ch j - 




t d - 


sh zh 


t Z ' - 


s z 


t d n 


s z 




f z 


p b m 


f - 



rl 
w 



Malayan, 



a 


(') C) 


{K) h 


e 


(?) 




i u 


k g n 


a)(i) 


ai au 


I g k- 


- - 




t d - 


(1) - 




(*) id) - 


(?) (?) 




t d n 


(^) (*•) 




p b m 


(/) - 



J. Grawfurd, a Gramm. and Diet, of the 

Malay langu. Lond. 1852. 

a {a) (a) 

e ijz) 

i u k g ng 

y ch j 11 

f d- - 

(0 (11) - 
r I t d n 



w 



p b m 



(A)h 




(x) {g) 




- - 


y 


(s) 




i?) (!■) 




s z 


r 


(q) W 




(f) - 


w 



The letters included in brackets occur only in Semitic words. 



Javanese. 

ad - ' 

e k g n 

e k g n 

i u t d - 

t d n 

p b m 



J. (]rawfurd, aGr-and Diet, of the Mai. langn. 
p. XVI. 

ad -a 

e k g ng 

y ' ch J n 

I u t' d- - 

r I ' t d n s 0' I 

w p b m w 



69 



Turhish, 

'a i ' 

ego q 

i u u k g - 

ai ei ^ 9 '»' 

t d - 

t d n 
p h m 



K h 


XX 


s z 


§ ? 


s z 


^^' 


/- 



A. vT.mbert, EU'm. de la Gramm. Turke. 2"' ed. 
Paris 1S33. 

a 

e q 

i u Qu k g - 

,1 Qi tch dj n 



y 

r I 
w 



t z - 
t d n 

p b m 



h 


h 


kh 


gh 


cJi 


J 


9 


z 


s 


z 


8 


z 


f 


- 



y 

r I 

w 



Mongolian. 



a [k]gn 

e [o] [t] d n 

i [w] u 

- h m 



J. J. Schmidt, Gramm. d. Mongol. Spr, 
Petersb. 1831. 4. 



x[x]y « [^]^^ 

s [z] r I e b [6\ p] dn 



ch [gh] 

88 [s] 
[8Ch] - 



3 
rl 



w 



i [ii] u 
w - hm 

ao ai [oi] [m] [ts] [dz] ts [dz\ ao ai [oi\ [id] [tsc1i[ {dscK\ fs [ds] 
ei [oi] [ui] ii ei [oi] [Hi] ii 

The letters included in brackets are of a later formation. 



Chinese. From oral communication by the Revds J. Gough and 

T. M' Clatchie. (Ch. Miss.) in I85'i. ' 





a 






^ Q 






e g 


9 




i u 


u 




n m r 


z 




ai ei au 


eu 




a e I u 


u 


an 


en in on un gn 



k g n 

Tc g n 

t(ts) d{dz) - 

t{ts) d{dz) - 

t d n 

p b m 



Rh 




X- 




X- 


y 


8 Z 




8 Z 


I 


f- 


w 



f{t8) 

p 



For the representation of the compound sounds ts., dz, etc. by 
simple bases, see obove p. 42. 



70 



Sleph. Eiidlicher, Anfangsgriinde der (Jhines. Gramm. VYien. lS'i5. 



e 








a 


k 


k 


3 


e 


c 


c 


'n 


i u 


tc 


tc 


- 


ai ei ao eu 


ts 


ts 


- 


an en etc. 


t 


t 


n 


ang eng etc. 


p 


p 


m 



h h 




9 - 
sh sh 


y^^ 


ss s 


I 


ff 


10, u 



AMERICANS LANGUAGES. 



Greenlandish. S. Klelnschmldt, Gr. der Gronl. Spr. Berlin. 185 



a 

e 





h - 


k n 


XX 


k A 


xy 




s z 


t n 


s z 


p m 


fv 



1 1 



a 




e 


k rn^ 


i u 


n ni 




t n 




p m 



h 


-' 


r 


r 


9 


y 


S8 


ss 


s 


s 


f 


V 



Idl 



Kri. (Hunter), The faith and duty of a Christian, translated into the 
language ofthe Cree Indians, North- West-America. Lond. 18.55. 



a a 




k- - 


h 


e 




t'- - 


X 


il u 




t - n 


s 


ai au di 


eu 


p - m 


- 



10 a k - - 

a - ch - - 

i e 00 t - n 

y, i 010 aw ew p - m 



h 



IV 



Mikniah. The Gospel accord, to St. Matthew in the Micmac lang., 
printed by the Brit. SCYov. Bible Soc. Ch^rlottetown. 1 S5 3. 



a a 


k g n 
t d n 


h 

s 


y 
I 


1(. 


c,k g n 
t d n 


h 

s 


y 
I 


e e 
i I u il 


p h m 
ts d 


a 


IV 


e e & 
i % u 1(1 


p b m 
9 ./ 


- 


u 


ai au iu 








t T V 









J 



71 



Iroquois, D.i Ponceau, Mem. sur le syst. Gramm. des Langues de quel- 
ques nations de TAmerique duNord. Paris 1S3S. p. 103. 

^77 7, 7. , 



a 
e 
i u 

a e 



h - 
t n 



a 

e 

i ou 

an ein on 



k 
t n 



J 
r 

ou 



Mohegan. Edwards, Observ. on the Mohegan lang. A new edit 



7 - w 

with notes by J. Pickering. Boston. 1S2.3 



§ ^ 




h 




e u 


a a 


h g n 


X 


y 


a au qk g n 


e 


t d n 


s 




ey t dn 


u 


p b m 

ts 


- 


10 


ee u, 00 p h m 
ch 



h 

gh 



y 



Tsirokl 

e 

o 

a 

ego 

i u 

MuskoJci. 



WoiYord, The American Sunday School Speliin, 
book. New -York 1824. 



k g - 
t d n 
- - m 
hw dz 



y 

I I 
w 



V 

a 
e y 



k g - 
t d n 
- - m 

9. 



y 
I 'I 

w 



Dav. WInsIett, Muskukee hymns. Park Hill. 1S51 
(Presbyter. Miss.) 



e 

o 

a 

ego 

i u u 

ai au 



k n 

t n 

p m 



y 

I I 

w 



V 

a 
ae oe o 
e ue « 
i au 



k 71 \ h 

t 71 \ S 

p m \f 



y 

Ir 
w 



Otoml 



e 
a a 



k g n 
e t d n 

e ^ p b m 

i u u ts ts dz ny i 
a et u 



Conte PifM olomini, Gramm. della lingua (hnmi 
Roma. 18 II. 

h 

y II n r<\ rjq, r, qu rj^ gu 7i 

t d n 

p h m plc'\ " 

y u ^ ^111-^1 

a e i 6 d 



h 

X' 
s z 

/- 



72 



Indian languages of 
North America. 



a 

e 

i u 

ai au 

d et u 





h 


h g h 


XX 


Igk 


s z 


t d n 


s z 




^ ^' 


p b m 


f V 



w 



John Pickering, an Essay on a uniform 
orthography for the Indian languages of 
North America. Cambridge. 1820. 4. 



k g 

y I tsh dj, ddh 
r I t d 



a 






e 




i u 




ai au 




aeio u 






— 


khgh 


dzh 


n^j ni 


sh zh 




n 


s z 




thdh 




m 


fv 



y ki 



to 



ts dz 



ts. tz ds^ dz 



POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 



Tahiti. A Gramm. of the Tahitian dialect of the Polyne- 

sian language. Tahiti. Print, at the (London) Miss. 
Prefs. 1823. 8. 



a a k [g) n 


k - 


y 


a k g ng 


h - 


i 


ee t {d) n 


s z 


rl 


CO t d n 


s z 


rl 


it uu p (b) m 


f^ 


w 


i u p b on 


/« 


IV 


ai ae au ao ei 


ai ae au ao ei 


eu ou oi ui ue 






en. ou oiuiue 







The hard and soft explosive letters arc not quite distinct. 



73 



FidzL 



ad 

e S 



Haziewooc], a compend. Gramiii. of the Feejeean h 
Vewa, Feejee. 1S50. (Wesl. Miss.) 



k g n 


h - 


t d n 


s 


(p) b m 


(f)^ 



y 

rl 
w 



a 
e 



k k ng 



ai ail ei eu oi ou (dz) nk ng nd mh ai au 



s cW I 
el eu oi ou (^j) q qdb 



South Australian. 



a a 



u 



ai au 01 ui 



Teichelmann and Schiirmann of the Lutheran 
Miss. Soc, Outlines of a Gramm., Vocab. 
and Phraseology of the aborig. lang. of 
South Australia , spoken in and around Ade- 
laide. Adelaide 1846. 



k (g) n 
t (d) n 
p (b) m 



y 

rl 

w 



ad 

e 

i u 

<j.i ail oi ui 



k [g] ng 

t [d) n 

p (h) m 



U 
rl 

ID 



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